Compare And Contrast The Lincoln Memorial Vs Parthenon

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Why the Lincoln Memorial was almost never built

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Custom Essay Writing Service. Assignment Essays essays are NOT intended to be forwarded as finalized work as it is only strictly meant to be used for research and study purposes. Assignment Essays does not endorse or condone any type of plagiarism. Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. Universal Principles of Design. A short summary of this paper. John C. Butler Larry W. Indeed, a deeper understanding of human behavior and a scholarly approach to design were almost entirely overlooked.

I left college with considerable knowledge in form making and very little knowledge in understanding human perception and meaning making. Universal Principles of Design is a resource that helps to fill in some of the gaps, dispel myths, and give sound reasons for much of what is felt intuitively, and yet not fully understood. Universal Principles of Design guides the designer toward the reasons that people love high, expansive ceilings — the Cathedral Effect — and big windows with beautiful nature views — the Biophilia Effect. And who would have guessed that high ceilings promote creativity and that views of nature are restorative to the sense of well-being? Propositional Density looks at meaning in terms of analogies of shape, meaning, and supposition.

Maybe even more importantly, it gives the designer a way to communicate with a client in terms of supporting the choices that have been made for the design. Universal Principles of Design brought me to a deeper understanding of the human equation in design. Human motivation is mysterious and tied to subconscious instincts, perceptions, and influences. Universal Principles of Design reveals the driving forces behind human motivation and brings the designer to an understanding of the intuitive. They studied art, science, and religion in order to understand the basic workings of nature, and then applied what they learned to solve the problems of the day.

Over time, the quantity and complexity of accumulated knowledge led to increased specialization among designers, and breadth of knowledge was increasingly traded for depth of knowledge. This trend continues today. As designers become more specialized, awareness of advances and discoveries in other areas of specialization diminishes. This is inevitable and unfortunate, since much can be learned from progress in other design disciplines. Convenient access to cross-disciplinary design knowledge has not previously been available. A designer interested in learning about other areas of specialization would have to study texts from many different design disciplines.

Determining which texts in each discipline are worthy of study would be the first challenge, deciphering the specialized terminology of the texts the second, and enduring the depth of detail the third. The effort is significant, and rarely expended beyond brief excursions into unfamiliar areas to research specific problems. The goal of this book is to assist designers with these challenges, and reduce the effort required to learn about the key principles of design across disciplines. The principles were selected from a variety of design disciplines based on several factors, including utility, degree of misuse or misunderstanding, and strength of supporting evidence. The selection of concepts should not be interpreted to mean that there are only relevant principles of design—there are obviously many more.

For those interested in addressing a specific problem of design, the principles have also been indexed by questions commonly confronting designers see previous page. Each principle is presented in a two-page format. The left-hand page contains a succinct definition, a full description of the principle, examples of its use, and guidelines for use. Side notes appear to the right of the text, and provide elaborations and references. The right-hand page contains visual examples and related graphics to support a deeper understanding of the principle.

Sound design is not only within the reach of a small set of uniquely talented individuals, but can be achieved by virtually all designers. The use of well- established design principles increases the probability that a design will be successful. Use Universal Principles of Design as a resource to increase your cross-disciplinary knowledge and understanding of design, promote brainstorming and idea generation for design problems, and refresh your memory of design principles that are infrequently applied. Finally, use it as a means of checking the quality of your design process and product.

When they do so, however, there is usually some compensating merit attained at the cost of the violation. Unless you are certain of doing as well, it is best to abide by the principles. The specific percentages are not important, as measures of actual systems economist who observed that 20 percent of indicate that the proportion of critical variables varies between 10 percent and 30 the Italian people possessed 80 percent of the percent. Juran Ed. The remaining 80 percent of the features should be reevaluated to verify their value in the design.

Similarly, when redesigning systems to make them more efficient, focusing on aspects of the system beyond the critical 20 percent quickly yields diminishing returns; improvements beyond the critical 20 percent will result in less substantial gains that are often offset by the introduction of errors or new problems into the system. All elements in a design are not created equal.

Noncritical functions that are part of the less-important 80 percent should be minimized or removed altogether from the design. When time and resources are limited, resist efforts to correct and optimize designs beyond the critical 20 percent, as such efforts yield diminishing returns. Forms Movie Picture Customize Graphical user interfaces conceal most of their functions in drop-down menus bottom image. This reduces the complexity of the display, but also makes frequently used functions more difficult to access. Identifying the critical 20 percent of the functions and making them readily available in toolbars solves the problem top image.

Historically, accessibility to universal design and inclusive design. There are Accessibility Guidelines 1. Mace, Perceptibility is achieved when everyone can perceive the design, regardless Graeme J. Hardie, and Jaine P. Basic guidelines for improving perceptibility are: present State University, Operability is achieved when everyone can use the design, regardless of physical abilities. Basic guidelines for improving operability are: minimize repetitive actions and the need for sustained physical effort; facilitate use of controls through good affordances and constraints; provide compatibility with assistive physical technologies e.

Simplicity is achieved when everyone can easily understand and use the design, regardless of experience, literacy, or concentration level. Basic guidelines for improving simplicity are: remove unnecessary complexity; clearly and consistently code and label controls and modes of operation; use progressive disclosure to present only relevant information and controls; provide clear prompting and feedback for all actions; and ensure that reading levels accommodate a wide range of literacy. Forgiveness is achieved when designs minimize the occurrence and consequences of errors. Basic guidelines for improving forgiveness are: use good affordances and constraints e. Advance organizers are brief chunks of information—spoken, written, or illustrated— 1 The seminal work on advance organizers is presented prior to new material to help facilitate learning and understanding.

Ausubel, Review of Educational Research, vol. The just present the key points on how to control decision to use one or the other depends on whether the information is new to a forklift. Mayer, Instructional Science, , vol. Comparative advance organizers are useful when audiences have existing knowledge similar to the information being presented. For example, in teaching experienced forklift operators about how to control a new type of forklift, an advance comparative organizer would compare and contrast features and operations between the familiar forklift and the new forklift.

Use advance organizers in learning situations that begin with an introduction and present information in a linear sequence. When presenting novel information, use expository advance organizers. When presenting information that is similar to what people know, use comparative advance organizers. At A forklift is a small industrial vehicle with a power-operated pronged platform that can an abstract level, it illustrates that be raised and lowered for insertion under a advance organizers are a kind of load to be lifted and moved. How a forklift works forklift operation. How to inspect a forklift 3. How to operate a forklift How a forklift works How to inspect a forklift How to operate a forklift Comparative Advance Organizers A comparative advance organizer Familiar Knowledge New Information leverages familiarity with the A model forklift to introduce the A model.

The effect has been observed in several experiments, and has significant subsequent research. Inherent whether or not they actually are easier to use. More usable but less-aesthetic Usability: Experimental Analysis on the designs may suffer a lack of acceptance that renders issues of usability moot. Asch, Journal of Abnormal and impressions of people influence attitude formation and measurably affect how Social Psychology, , vol. For example, it is common for people to name and develop feelings toward designs that have fostered positive attitudes e. Such personal and positive relationships with a design evoke feelings of affection, loyalty, and patience—all significant factors in the long- term usability and overall success of a design.

These positive relationships have implications for how effectively people interact with designs. Positive relationships with a design result in an interaction that helps catalyze creative thinking and problem solving. Negative relationships result in an interaction that narrows thinking and stifles creativity. This is especially important in stressful environments, since stress increases fatigue and reduces cognitive performance. Aesthetic designs are perceived as easier to use, are more readily accepted and used over time, and promote creative thinking and problem solving.

Aesthetic designs also foster positive relationships with people, making them more tolerant of problems with a design. Cellular phones need to be recharged frequently, carried around, and often suffer from signal loss or interference; they are not trouble-free devices. Aesthetic elements like color covers and customizable rings are more than ornaments; the aesthetic elements create a positive relationship with users that, in turn, make such troubles more tolerable and the devices more successful. Objects and environments are better suited for some functions than others. Stairs are better suited than fences for climbing; E. Bransford Eds , Lawrence therefore, stairs are said to better afford climbing.

This is not to say that square Erlbaum Associates, ; and The Ecological wheels cannot be rolled or fences climbed, rather that the physical characteristics Approach to Visual Perception by James of round wheels and stairs better afford the functions of rolling and climbing. A popular treatment of affordances can be found in The Design of Everyday Things by Donald Norman, When the affordance of an object or environment corresponds with its intended Doubleday, Conversely, when the affordance of an object or environment conflicts with its 2 Note that the term affordance refers to the intended function, the design will perform less efficiently and be more difficult to properties of a physical object or environment use.

For example, a door with a handle affords pulling. Sometimes, doors with only. When images of physical objects or handles are designed to open only by pushing—the affordance of the handle environments are used e. Replace the handle with a flat plate, and it now button , the images, themselves, do not afford anything. The knowledge of button affordances affords pushing—the affordance of the flat plate corresponds to the way in which exists in the mind of the perceiver based the door can be used. The design is improved. Therefore, the Images of common physical objects and environments can enhance the usability affordance is said to be perceived.

See, for of a design. For example, stackable chairs should only stack one way. Mimic familiar objects and environments in abstract contexts e. When affordances are successfully employed in a design, it will seem inconceivable that the design could function or be used otherwise. Outdoor lighting structures often With opposing male and female afford landing and perching for birds. This Legos naturally afford plugging into anti-perch fixture is designed to attach one another. Door affordances frequently conflict, as shown in the door on the left. By replacing the handle with a flat plate, the conflict is eliminated and the sign is superfluous. The recessed footplates and handlebar orientation of the Segway Human Transporter afford one mounting position for the user—the correct one.

Elements in a design should be aligned with one or more other elements. Kosslyn, W. Alignment can also be a powerful means of leading a person through a design. For example, the rows and columns of a grid or table make explicit the relatedness of elements sharing those rows and columns, and lead the eyes left-right and top-bottom accordingly. Edges of the design medium e. In paragraph text, left-aligned and right-aligned text blocks provide more powerful alignment cues than do center-aligned text blocks. The invisible column created by left-aligned and right-aligned text blocks presents a clear, visual cue against which other elements of the design can be aligned. Center-aligned text blocks, conversely, provide more visually ambiguous alignment cues, and can be difficult to connect with other elements.

Justified text provides more alignment cues than unjustified text, and should be used in complex compositions with many elements. Although alignment is generally defined in terms of rows and columns, more complex forms of alignment exist. In aligning elements along diagonals, for example, the relative angles between the invisible alignment paths should be 30 degrees or greater; separation of less than 30 degrees is too subtle and difficult to detect. As with all such principles of this type, there are exceptions e. However, these exceptions are rare, and alignment should be considered the general rule. For most designs, align elements into rows and columns or along a centerline. Use left- or right-justified text to create the best alignment cues, and consider justified text for complex compositions.

A simple problems with the design of the the improbable number of votes for adjustment to the ballot design butterfly ballot, most of the confusion Patrick Buchanan in Palm Beach would have dramatically reduced resulted from the misalignment County, and the number of double the error rate. Humans are predisposed to perceive certain forms and patterns as 1 Empirical literature on anthropomorphic design is surprisingly nascent. To explore how of the International Conference anthropomorphic form can be applied, consider the design of three bottles. In addition to its novelty, however, the bottle benefited from a number of anthropomorphic projections such as health, vitality, sexiness, and femininity, attributes that appealed to the predominantly female buyers of the time.

The Mae West comparison is apt, because like the actress, the Coke bottle demanded and got the attention of all passersby. Anthropomorphic forms do not necessarily need to look like a face or body to be compelling. Consider the Adiri Natural Nurser baby bottle. The bottle is designed to look and feel like a female breast, and not surprisingly it elicits the positive associations people have with breastfeeding.

The affective tone set by the bottle is one of naturalness and caring. What parent would choose a traditional, inorganic- looking bottle when such a supple, natural-looking substitute for the real thing was available? This, of course, does not mean the bottle performs better than nonanthropomorphic bottle designs, but it does mean the general inference of most people, based on its appearance, is that it does perform better.

The bottle transforms the perception of dish soap bottles from utilitarian containers to be hidden beneath counters to sculptural pieces to be displayed proudly atop counters. The large bulbous head triggers baby-face bias cognitive wiring, reinforcing its aesthetic appeal as well as associations such as safety, honesty, and purity. Labeling is applied in what would be the chest region, with a round logo on top, giving it the appearance of a kind of superhero costume.

It is more than a dish soap bottle — it is a helper, an art piece, and a symbol of sophistication and cleanliness. Consider anthropomorphic forms to attract attention and establish emotional connections. Favor more abstract versus realistic anthropomorphic forms, as realistic depictions often decrease, not increase, aesthetic appeal. Use feminine body proportions to elicit associations of sexuality and vitality.

Use round anthropomorphic forms to elicit babylike associations, and more angular forms to elicit masculine, aggressive associations. Though not free of functional deficiencies e. Contrast it with its disappointing replacement right. Archetypes are found in the themes of myths e. Jung, in the Collected Works of C. They are believed to be a product of unconscious biases and dispositions that G. Jung, Vol. Since Hull , Princeton University Press, Identifying 2 See The Hero and the Outlaw: Building and aligning appropriate archetypes with a design will increase its probability of Extraordinary Brands through the Power of success.

Pearson, McGraw-Hill Trade, Harley-Davidson aligns its product design and branding with the outlaw archetype, emphasizing freedom and living outside the rules of society. Products have a 3 The seminal work on archetypes in storytelling is The Hero with a Thousand Faces by Joseph certain look and feel e. Nike named after the Greek goddess of victory , by contrast, aligns its brand with the Hero archetype, using heroic sports figures to promote its product. Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods, and Lance Armstrong are all shown wearing Nike products while typically striking a heroic pose. It does mean that the probability of success would be lower because the archetypes do not align with the design.

This archetypal theme has been successfully employed by filmmakers like George Lucas and George Miller, and is also evident in the works of Steven Spielberg, John Boorman, Francis Coppola, and a number of Disney animated films. Since archetypes influence perception on an unconscious and primarily affective level, they are especially useful when traditional modes of communication e. Note that reactions to specific archetypes may vary across cultures and, therefore, should be tested on target populations prior to use. The knowledgeable of radioactive hazards thorns—to warn future humans of the design specification required the or speak any language known today.

With the advent of professional design and engineering software, elements in a design can be aligned with exacting precision. However, the alignment supported by software is based on the edges of elements — including center alignment, which calculates a center based on the edges. This method works well when elements are relatively uniform and symmetrical, but less well when the elements are nonuniform and asymmetrical. Using edge alignment when area alignment is called for is one of the most common errors in graphic design. A satisfactory area alignment can be achieved by positioning an object along the axis of alignment such that an equal amount of area or visual weight hangs on either side — if the object had mass, it would be balanced on the axis.

Unlike the straight edge achieved by left- or right-aligning similar elements based on their edges, alignment based on area invariably creates a ragged edge. This requires that parts of elements hang in the gutters or margins when aligned with strongly rectilinear elements, but it represents the strongest possible perceived alignment that can be achieved for morphologically dissimilar elements. The principle applies to text as well as graphical elements. For example, the horizontal center of a left-aligned text chunk with a right ragged edge, based on its area, would be to the left of a horizontal center based on its width — area alignment calculates the horizontal center in consideration of the reduced area of the ragged right edge, moving the horizontal center to the left, whereas edge alignment simply calculates the horizontal center as though the text chunk were a rectangle, with the right edge determined by the rightmost character.

Other common text examples include pull quotes, which should be aligned based on the text edge and not on the quotation marks; and numbered or bulleted items, which should be aligned based on the text edge and not on the numbers and bullets, unless the specific intent is to subordinate the listed items. Consider area alignment when incorporating dissimilar elements into a composition. When objects are simple and symmetrical, align based on their edges; otherwise, align based on their areas.

Unless there is some extraordinary overriding consideration, always hang pull quotes. Hang numbers and bullets when listing items, except when the items are meant to be subordinate. The right column is center-aligned based on the areas of the objects. Note the improvement achieved by using area alignment. They receive more attention from the opposite sex, receive more affection from their mothers, receive more leniency from judges and juries, and receive more 2 The seminal work on the attractiveness bias votes from the electorate than do unattractive people.

The attractiveness bias is vol. A nice contemporary a function of both biological and environmental factors. A Meta-analytic Biologically speaking, people are attractive when they exude health and fertility. Langlois, et al. Attributions of Infant Competence as a Biological factors of attraction are innate and true across cultures. Stephan and Judith H. Langlois, Child months-old and six-months-old , the babies looked longer at the attractive people Development, , vol.

For example, in studies presenting images of attractive and unattractive people to men and women, along with descriptions of their occupations, women preferred unattractive men with high-paying occupations equally to attractive men with medium-paying occupations. However, men never preferred unattractive women regardless of their financial status. Environmental factors of attraction vary considerably across cultures. When the presentation of attractive women is a key element of a design, use renderings or images of women with waist-to-hip ratios of approximately 0. When the presentation of attractive men is a key element of a design, use renderings or images of men with waist-to-hip ratios of approximately 0. Nixon was ill and running a fever.

Kennedy wore dark colors, makeup, and practiced his delivery in a studio prior to the debate. People who listened to the debate by radio believed Nixon to be the winner. However, people who watched the debate on TV came to a very different conclusion. The bias is found across all age ranges, cultures, and many Lorenz, Studium Generale, , vol. Zebraowitz, Westview Press, For example, babies with weak baby-face There are many other factors that could features receive less positive attention from adults and are rated as less likable, account for this statistic.

For example, the level of care and frequency of crying in premature less attractive, and less fun to be with than babies with strong baby-face features. For example, premature babies often lack these key stress of the caregiver. A potentially related phenomenon is the rate of child abuse for premature babies, which is approximately percent greater than for normal-term babies. However, unlike with children, there are liabilities to being a baby-faced adult.

Baby-faced adults appearing in commercials are effective when their role involves innocence and honesty, such as a personal testimonial for a product, but ineffective when their role involves speaking authoritatively about a topic, such as a doctor asserting the benefit of a product. In legal proceedings, baby-faced adults are more likely to be found innocent when the alleged crime involves an intentional act, but are more likely to be found guilty when the alleged crime involves a negligent act.

It is apparently more believable that a baby-faced person would do wrong accidentally than purposefully. Interestingly, when a baby-faced defendant pleads guilty, they receive harsher sentences than mature-faced defendants—it seems the contrast between the expectation of innocence and the conclusion of guilt evokes a harsher reaction than when the expectation and the conclusion align. Consider the baby-face bias in the design of characters or products when facial attributes are prominent e. Characters of this type can be made more appealing by exaggerating the various neonatal features e. In marketing and advertising, use mature-faced people when conveying expertise and authority; use baby-faced people when conveying testimonial information and submissiveness.

Superneonatal and super- mature features are usually only found in cartoon characters and mythic creatures. Baby-face features correlate with perceptions of helplessness and innocence, whereas mature features correlate with perceptions of knowledge and authority. In the past few decades, this claim has been tested Fromm and popularized by Edward Wilson. For example, in a longitudinal study following seven- to twelve-year-olds through housing relocation, children who experienced the greatest increase in nature 2 The seminal work on the biophilia effect is Psychology: The Briefer Course by William views from their windows made the greatest gains in standard tests of attention James, Holt, The seminal empirical work potential confounding variables such as differences in home quality were on the effect is Cognition and Environment: controlled.

Studies that examined the effects of Kaplan and Rachel Kaplan, Praeger Press, gardening, backpacking, and exposure to nature pictures versus urban pictures Why should nature imagery be more restorative and conducive to Journal of Environmental Psychology, , concentration than, for example, urban imagery? The effect is believed to result vol. However, given that photographs of nature versus urban environments are sufficient to trigger the effect, it is likely that the biophilia effect is more deeply rooted in the brain than the prefrontal cortex — perhaps an innate bias for greenery evolved in early humans because it conferred a selective advantage, a bias likely related to the savanna preference.

Consider the biophilia effect in the design of all environments, but in particular, environments in which learning, healing, and concentration are paramount. Although nature imagery seems to suffice in lieu of real nature exposure, the latter should be favored when possible as it is more likely to produce a strong generalizable effect. High ceilings promote abstract thinking and creativity. Low ceilings promote concrete and detail-oriented thinking. It is widely accepted that people prefer high ceilings to low ceilings. Zhu, Journal of Consumer Research, August Conspicuous ceiling height — that is, noticeably low or noticeably high ceilings — promotes different types of cognition, with high ceilings promoting abstract thinking and creativity and low ceilings promoting concrete and detail-oriented thinking.

No effect is observed if the ceiling height goes unnoticed. In word tasks, subjects were able to solve anagram problems more efficiently when the anagram aligned with ceiling height. For example, subjects in a high-ceilinged room could solve freedom-related anagrams e. A more practical example is an experiment in which two groups were asked to conduct product evaluations, one group in a high-ceilinged room and one in a low-ceilinged room. The group in the high- ceilinged room tended to focus on general product characteristics, whereas the group in the low-ceilinged room tended to focus on specific features.

One hypothesis is that this effect is due to priming — the stimulation of certain concepts in memory to promote and enhance cognition regarding related concepts. Consider the cathedral effect in the design of work and retail environments. For tasks that require creativity and out-of-the-box thinking e. For tasks that require detail-oriented work e. In retail environments, favor spaces with high ceilings when consumer choice requires imagination e. Favor high ceilings to extend the time in which visitors remain on site e. The ability to perform more creative work is enhanced by environments with high ceilings.

The maximum number of chunks that can be efficiently Psychological Review, , vol. By breaking the list of ten words into multiple, smaller chunks e. Regarding Chunking is often applied as a general technique to simplify designs. This is a short-term memory limits, see, for example, potential misapplication of the principle. Reference-related tasks consist primarily of scanning for a particular item; chunking in this case would dramatically increase the scan time and effort, and yield no benefits. Chunk information when people are required to recall and retain information, or when information is used for problem solving. Do not chunk information that is to be searched or scanned.

In environments where noise or stress can interfere with concentration, consider chunking critical display information in anticipation of diminished short-term memory capacity. Note that the number of content topics left gray panel observes the appropriate limits, as do the information chunks on the topics themselves. Overview and Challenge are not counted because they contain organizing information and quizzes only. Familiar words are easier to remember and chunk together than unfamiliar words.

Of the two lists, list 1 is easier to recall. Chunking large strings of numbers into multiple, smaller strings can help. Most people can remember their Social Security number and frequently called phone numbers. Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be studied by behavioral 1 The seminal work in classical conditioning is Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the psychologists. Lab workers discovered the technique when they noticed that dogs Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex by in the laboratory began salivating as soon as they entered the room. Because Ivan Pavlov, translated and edited by G.

Anrep, Dover Publications, Watson and Rosalie Rayner, Journal sound of a can opener. Kampe, Chris D. Classical conditioning is commonly used in animal training e. Dolan, and Uta Frith, chemical traces of TNT with sugar water to train bees to detect bombs , behavior Nature, , v. For example, television and magazine advertising firms use classical conditioning frequently to associate products and services with specific thoughts and feelings. Images of attractive people stimulate reward centers in the brain, and condition positive associations with products, services, and behaviors. Conversely, disturbing images of extreme violence or injury stimulate pain centers in the brain, and condition negative associations with products, services, and behaviors.

Human emotions condition quickly and easily in this way, particularly when the association is negative. In a classic experiment, a young child was exposed to a white rat accompanied by a loud noise. The child not only grew to fear the white rat which he did not fear previously , but other furry things as well e. Many phobias are caused by this type of association. For example, many children become anxious when visiting the dentist because previous experiences have been painful—dentists often give children treats in an attempt to reverse this association. Repeated pairings of a design with a trigger stimulus will condition an association over time.

Examples of positive trigger stimuli include anything that causes pleasure or evokes a positive emotional response—a picture of food, the sound of a drink being poured, images of attractive people. Examples of negative trigger stimuli include anything that causes pain or evokes a negative emotional response—physical pain of a vaccination, an embarrassing experience, or images of extreme pain and violence. The tendency to perceive a single pattern is so Forschung, , vol. For example, when individual line segments are positioned Willis D. Ellis ed.

The tendency to perceive information in this way is automatic and subconscious; it is likely a function of an innate 2 See, for example, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art by Scott McCloud, Kitchen Sink preference for simplicity over complexity, and pattern over randomness. Closure is strongest when elements approximate simple, recognizable patterns, such as geometric forms, and are located near one another. When simple, recognizable patterns are not easily perceived, designers can create closure through transitional elements e. Generally, if the energy required to find or form a pattern is greater than the energy required to perceive the elements individually, closure will not occur.

The principle of closure enables designers to reduce complexity by reducing the number of elements needed to organize and communicate information. For example, a logo design that is composed of recognizable elements does not need to complete many of its lines and contours to be clear and effective.