The Underground Railroad Analysis

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The Underground Railroad by Colson Whitehead

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Most trains carry a revenue load, although non-revenue cars exist for the railway's own use, such as for maintenance-of-way purposes. The engine driver engineer in North America controls the locomotive or other power cars, although people movers and some rapid transits are under automatic control. Traditionally, trains are pulled using a locomotive. This involves one or more powered vehicles being located at the front of the train, providing sufficient tractive force to haul the weight of the full train.

This arrangement remains dominant for freight trains and is often used for passenger trains. A push—pull train has the end passenger car equipped with a driver's cab so that the engine driver can remotely control the locomotive. This allows one of the locomotive-hauled train's drawbacks to be removed, since the locomotive need not be moved to the front of the train each time the train changes direction. A railroad car is a vehicle used for the haulage of either passengers or freight. A multiple unit has powered wheels throughout the whole train. These are used for rapid transit and tram systems, as well as many both short- and long-haul passenger trains. A railcar is a single, self-powered car, and may be electrically propelled or powered by a diesel engine.

Multiple units have a driver's cab at each end of the unit, and were developed following the ability to build electric motors and engines small enough to fit under the coach. There are only a few freight multiple units, most of which are high-speed post trains. Steam locomotives are locomotives with a steam engine that provides adhesion. Coal , petroleum , or wood is burned in a firebox , boiling water in the boiler to create pressurized steam.

The steam travels through the smokebox before leaving via the chimney or smoke stack. In the process, it powers a piston that transmits power directly through a connecting rod US: main rod and a crankpin US: wristpin on the driving wheel US main driver or to a crank on a driving axle. Steam locomotives have been phased out in most parts of the world for economical and safety reasons, although many are preserved in working order by heritage railways.

Electric locomotives draw power from a stationary source via an overhead wire or third rail. Some also or instead use a battery. In locomotives that are powered by high voltage alternating current , a transformer in the locomotive converts the high voltage, low current power to low voltage, high current used in the traction motors that power the wheels. Modern locomotives may use three-phase AC induction motors or direct current motors. Under certain conditions, electric locomotives are the most powerful traction. Accordingly, electric traction is used on urban systems, lines with high traffic and for high-speed rail. Diesel locomotives use a diesel engine as the prime mover.

The energy transmission may be either diesel-electric , diesel-mechanical or diesel-hydraulic but diesel-electric is dominant. Electro-diesel locomotives are built to run as diesel-electric on unelectrified sections and as electric locomotives on electrified sections. Alternative methods of motive power include magnetic levitation , horse-drawn, cable , gravity, pneumatics and gas turbine.

A passenger train travels between stations where passengers may embark and disembark. Passenger trains are part of public transport and often make up the stem of the service, with buses feeding to stations. Passenger trains provide long-distance intercity travel, daily commuter trips, or local urban transit services, operating with a diversity of vehicles, operating speeds, right-of-way requirements, and service frequency. Service frequencies are often expressed as a number of trains per hour tph. Whereas intercity railway involve higher speeds, longer routes, and lower frequency usually scheduled , intracity transit involves lower speeds, shorter routes, and higher frequency especially during peak hours.

Intercity trains are long-haul trains that operate with few stops between cities. Trains typically have amenities such as a dining car. Some lines also provide over-night services with sleeping cars. Some long-haul trains have been given a specific name. Regional trains are medium distance trains that connect cities with outlying, surrounding areas, or provide a regional service, making more stops and having lower speeds. Commuter trains serve suburbs of urban areas, providing a daily commuting service. Airport rail links provide quick access from city centres to airports. High-speed rail are special inter-city trains that operate at much higher speeds than conventional railways, the limit being regarded at to kilometres per hour to mph.

High-speed trains are used mostly for long-haul service and most systems are in Western Europe and East Asia. Magnetic levitation trains such as the Shanghai maglev train use under-riding magnets which attract themselves upward towards the underside of a guideway and this line has achieved somewhat higher peak speeds in day-to-day operation than conventional high-speed railways, although only over short distances. Due to their heightened speeds, route alignments for high-speed rail tend to have broader curves than conventional railways, but may have steeper grades that are more easily climbed by trains with large kinetic energy.

Their high kinetic energy translates to higher horsepower-to-ton ratios e. Since lateral forces act on curves, curvatures are designed with the highest possible radius. All these features are dramatically different from freight operations, thus justifying exclusive high-speed rail lines if it is economically feasible. Higher-speed rail services are intercity rail services that have top speeds higher than conventional intercity trains but the speeds are not as high as those in the high-speed rail services. These services are provided after improvements to the conventional rail infrastructure in order to support trains that can operate safely at higher speeds. Rapid transit is an intracity system built in large cities and has the highest capacity of any passenger transport system.

It is usually grade-separated and commonly built underground or elevated. At street level, smaller trams can be used. Light rails are upgraded trams that have step-free access, their own right-of-way and sometimes sections underground. Monorail systems are elevated, medium-capacity systems. A people mover is a driverless, grade-separated train that serves only a few stations, as a shuttle. Due to the lack of uniformity of rapid transit systems, route alignment varies, with diverse rights-of-way private land, side of road, street median and geometric characteristics sharp or broad curves, steep or gentle grades.

For instance, the Chicago 'L' trains are designed with extremely short cars to negotiate the sharp curves in the Loop. A freight train hauls cargo using freight cars specialized for the type of goods. Freight trains are very efficient, with economy of scale and high energy efficiency. Authorities often encourage the use of cargo rail transport due to its fame. Container trains have become the beta type in the US for bulk haulage. Containers can easily be transshipped to other modes, such as ships and trucks, using cranes.

This has succeeded the boxcar wagon-load , where the cargo had to be loaded and unloaded into the train manually. The intermodal containerization of cargo has revolutionized the supply chain logistics industry, reducing ship costs significantly. In Europe, the sliding wall wagon has largely superseded the ordinary covered wagons. Other types of cars include refrigerator cars , stock cars for livestock and autoracks for road vehicles. When rail is combined with road transport, a roadrailer will allow trailers to be driven onto the train, allowing for easy transition between road and rail.

Bulk handling represents a key advantage for rail transport. Low or even zero transshipment costs combined with energy efficiency and low inventory costs allow trains to handle bulk much cheaper than by road. Typical bulk cargo includes coal, ore, grains and liquids. Bulk is transported in open-topped cars , hopper cars and tank cars. Railway tracks are laid upon land owned or leased by the railway company. Owing to the desirability of maintaining modest grades, rails will often be laid in circuitous routes in hilly or mountainous terrain. Route length and grade requirements can be reduced by the use of alternating cuttings , bridges and tunnels — all of which can greatly increase the capital expenditures required to develop a right-of-way, while significantly reducing operating costs and allowing higher speeds on longer radius curves.

In densely urbanized areas, railways are sometimes laid in tunnels to minimize the effects on existing properties. Track consists of two parallel steel rails, anchored perpendicular to members called sleepers ties of timber, concrete, steel, or plastic to maintain a consistent distance apart, or rail gauge. The track guides the conical, flanged wheels, keeping the cars on the track without active steering and therefore allowing trains to be much longer than road vehicles. The rails and ties are usually placed on a foundation made of compressed earth on top of which is placed a bed of ballast to distribute the load from the ties and to prevent the track from buckling as the ground settles over time under the weight of the vehicles passing above.

The ballast also serves as a means of drainage. Some more modern track in special areas is attached directly without ballast. Track may be prefabricated or assembled in place. By welding rails together to form lengths of continuous welded rail , additional wear and tear on rolling stock caused by the small surface gap at the joints between rails can be counteracted; this also makes for a quieter ride. On curves, the outer rail may be at a higher level than the inner rail.

This is called superelevation or cant. This reduces the forces tending to displace the track and makes for a more comfortable ride for standing livestock and standing or seated passengers. A given amount of superelevation is most effective over a limited range of speeds. Points and switches - also known as Turnouts - are the means of directing a train onto a diverging section of track. Laid similar to normal track, a point typically consists of a frog common crossing , check rails and two switch rails.

The switch rails may be moved left or right, under the control of the signalling system, to determine which path the train will follow. Spikes in wooden ties can loosen over time, but split and rotten ties may be individually replaced with new wooden ties or concrete substitutes. Concrete ties can also develop cracks or splits, and can also be replaced individually. Should the rails settle due to soil subsidence, they can be lifted by specialized machinery and additional ballast tamped under the ties to level the rails. Periodically, ballast must be removed and replaced with clean ballast to ensure adequate drainage.

Culverts and other passages for water must be kept clear lest water is impounded by the trackbed, causing landslips. Where trackbeds are placed along rivers, additional protection is usually placed to prevent streambank erosion during times of high water. Bridges require inspection and maintenance, since they are subject to large surges of stress in a short period of time when a heavy train crosses. The inspection of railway equipment is essential for the safe movement of trains. Many types of defect detectors are in use on the world's railroads.

These devices utilize technologies that vary from a simplistic paddle and switch to infrared and laser scanning, and even ultrasonic audio analysis. Their use has avoided many rail accidents over the 70 years they have been used. Railway signalling is a system used to control railway traffic safely to prevent trains from colliding. Being guided by fixed rails which generate low friction, trains are uniquely susceptible to collision since they frequently operate at speeds that do not enable them to stop quickly or within the driver's sighting distance; road vehicles, which encounter a higher level of friction between their rubber tyres and the road surface, have much shorter braking distances.

Most forms of train control involve movement authority being passed from those responsible for each section of a rail network to the train crew. Not all methods require the use of signals, and some systems are specific to single track railways. The signalling process is traditionally carried out in a signal box , a small building that houses the lever frame required for the signalman to operate switches and signal equipment.

These are placed at various intervals along the route of a railway, controlling specified sections of track. More recent technological developments have made such operational doctrine superfluous, with the centralization of signalling operations to regional control rooms. This has been facilitated by the increased use of computers, allowing vast sections of track to be monitored from a single location. The common method of block signalling divides the track into zones guarded by combinations of block signals, operating rules, and automatic-control devices so that only one train may be in a block at any time.

The electrification system provides electrical energy to the trains, so they can operate without a prime mover on board. This allows lower operating costs, but requires large capital investments along the lines. Mainline and tram systems normally have overhead wires, which hang from poles along the line. Grade-separated rapid transit sometimes use a ground third rail. Power may be fed as direct DC or alternating current AC. The most common DC voltages are and V for tram and rapid transit systems, and 1, and 3, V for mainlines. The two dominant AC systems are 15 kV and 25 kV. A railway station serves as an area where passengers can board and alight from trains.

A goods station is a yard which is exclusively used for loading and unloading cargo. Large passenger stations have at least one building providing conveniences for passengers, such as purchasing tickets and food. Smaller stations typically only consist of a platform. Early stations were sometimes built with both passenger and goods facilities. Platforms are used to allow easy access to the trains, and are connected to each other via underpasses , footbridges and level crossings. Some large stations are built as culs-de-sac , with trains only operating out from one direction. Smaller stations normally serve local residential areas, and may have connection to feeder bus services.

Large stations, in particular central stations , serve as the main public transport hub for the city, and have transfer available between rail services, and to rapid transit, tram or bus services. Since the s, there has been an increasing trend to split up railway companies, with companies owning the rolling stock separated from those owning the infrastructure. This is particularly true in Europe, where this arrangement is required by the European Union. This has allowed open access by any train operator to any portion of the European railway network. In the UK, the railway track is state owned, with a public controlled body Network Rail running, maintaining and developing the track, while Train Operating Companies have run the trains since privatization in the s.

In the U. Passenger lines, primarily Amtrak , operate as tenants on the freight lines. Consequently, operations must be closely synchronized and coordinated between freight and passenger railroads, with passenger trains often being dispatched by the host freight railroad. The main source of income for railway companies is from ticket revenue for passenger transport and shipment fees for cargo.

Discounts and monthly passes are sometimes available for frequent travellers e. Freight revenue may be sold per container slot or for a whole train. Sometimes, the shipper owns the cars and only rents the haulage. For passenger transport, advertisement income can be significant. Governments may choose to give subsidies to rail operation, since rail transport has fewer externalities than other dominant modes of transport. If the railway company is state-owned, the state may simply provide direct subsidies in exchange for increased production.

If operations have been privatized, several options are available. Some countries have a system where the infrastructure is owned by a government agency or company — with open access to the tracks for any company that meets safety requirements. In such cases, the state may choose to provide the tracks free of charge, or for a fee that does not cover all costs. This is seen as analogous to the government providing free access to roads. For passenger operations, a direct subsidy may be paid to a public-owned operator, or public service obligation tender may be held, and a time-limited contract awarded to the lowest bidder.

Via Rail Canada and US passenger rail service Amtrak are private railroad companies chartered by their respective national governments. As private passenger services declined because of competition from automobiles and airlines, they became shareholders of Amtrak either with a cash entrance fee or relinquishing their locomotives and rolling stock. The government subsidizes Amtrak by supplying start-up capital and making up for losses at the end of the fiscal year. Trains can travel at very high speeds, but they are heavy, unable to deviate from the track, and require great distances to stop. Possible accidents include: derailment jumping the track ; a collision with another train; or collision with automobiles, other vehicles, or pedestrians at level crossings, which accounts for the majority of all rail accidents and casualties.

To minimize the risk of accidents, the most important safety measures are strict operating rules, e. Train whistles , bells, or horns warn of the presence of a train, while trackside signals maintain the distances between trains. On many high-speed inter-city networks, such as Japan's Shinkansen , the trains run on dedicated railway lines without any level crossings. This is an important element in the safety of the system as it effectively eliminates the potential for collision with automobiles, other vehicles, or pedestrians, and greatly reduces the probability of collision with other trains. Another benefit is that services on the inter-city network remain punctual.

As in any infrastructure asset, railways must keep up with periodic inspection and maintenance in order to minimize the effect of infrastructure failures that can disrupt freight revenue operations and passenger services. Inspection practices include track geometry cars or walking inspection. Curve maintenance especially for transit services includes gauging, fastener tightening, and rail replacement.

Since maintenance may overlap with operations, maintenance windows nighttime hours, off-peak hours, altering train schedules or routes must be closely followed. In addition, passenger safety during maintenance work inter-track fencing, proper storage of materials, track work notices, hazards of equipment near states must be regarded at all times. At times, maintenance access problems can emerge due to tunnels, elevated structures, and congested cityscapes. Here, specialized equipment or smaller versions of conventional maintenance gear are used. Unlike highways or road networks where capacity is disaggregated into unlinked trips over individual route segments, railway capacity is fundamentally considered a network system. As a result, many components are causes and effects of system disruptions.

Rail transport is an energy-efficient [67] but capital-intensive [68] means of mechanized land transport. The tracks provide smooth and hard surfaces on which the wheels of the train can roll with a relatively low level of friction being generated. A land vehicle's total resistance in pounds or Newtons is a quadratic function of the vehicle's speed:. Essentially, resistance differs between vehicle's contact point and surface of roadway. Metal wheels on metal rails have a significant advantage of overcoming resistance compared to rubber-tyred wheels on any road surface railway — 0. In terms of cargo capacity combining speed and size being moved in a day:. In terms of the horsepower to weight ratio, a slow-moving barge requires 0. However, at higher speeds, a railway overcomes the barge and proves most economical.

As an example, a typical modern wagon can hold up to tonnes short tons of freight on two four-wheel bogies. The track distributes the weight of the train evenly, allowing significantly greater loads per axle and wheel than in road transport, leading to less wear and tear on the permanent way. This can save energy compared with other forms of transport, such as road transport, which depends on the friction between rubber tyres and the road. Trains have a small frontal area in relation to the load they are carrying, which reduces air resistance and thus energy usage.

In addition, the presence of track guiding the wheels allows for very long trains to be pulled by one or a few engines and driven by a single operator, even around curves, which allows for economies of scale in both manpower and energy use; by contrast, in road transport, more than two articulations causes fishtailing and makes the vehicle unsafe. Considering only the energy spent to move the means of transport, and using the example of the urban area of Lisbon , electric trains seem to be on average 20 times more efficient than automobiles for transportation of passengers, if we consider energy spent per passenger-distance with similar occupation ratios.

Due to these benefits, rail transport is a major form of passenger and freight transport in many countries. In North America, freight rail transport is widespread and heavily used, but intercity passenger rail transport is relatively scarce outside the Northeast Corridor , due to increased preference of other modes, particularly automobiles and airplanes. Australia has a generally sparse network befitting its population density but has some areas with significant networks, especially in the southeast. In addition to the previously existing east—west transcontinental line in Australia, a line from north to south has been constructed.

The highest railway in the world is the line to Lhasa , in Tibet, [71] partly running over permafrost territory. Western Europe has the highest railway density in the world and many individual trains there operate through several countries despite technical and organizational differences in each national network. Railways are central to the formation of modernity and ideas of progress.

Exact time was essential, and everyone had to know what the time was, resulting in clocks towers for railway stations, clocks in public places, pocket watches for railway workers and for travelers. Trains left on time they never left early. By contrast, in the premodern era, passenger ships left when the captain had enough passengers. In the premodern era, local time was set at noon, when the sun was at its highest.

Every place east to west had a different time and that changed with the introduction of standard time zones. Printed time tables were a convenience for the travelers, but more elaborate time tables, called train orders , were even more essential for the train crews, the maintenance workers, the station personnel, and for the repair and maintenance crews, who knew when to expect a train would come along. Most trackage was single track, with sidings and signals to allow lower priority trains to be sidetracked. Schedules told everyone what to do, where to be, and exactly when. If bad weather disrupted the system, telegraphers relayed immediate corrections and updates throughout the system.

Just as railways as business organizations created the standards and models for modern big business, so too the railway timetable was adapted to myriad uses, such as schedules for buses, ferries, and airplanes, for radio and television programs, for school schedules, for factory time clocks. The modern world was ruled by the clock and the timetable. Scholars have linked railroads to successful nation-building efforts by states. According to historian Henry Adams the system of railroads needed:.

The impact can be examined through five aspects: shipping, finance, management, careers, and popular reaction. First they provided a highly efficient network for shipping freight and passengers across a large national market. The result was a transforming impact on most sectors of the economy including manufacturing, retail and wholesale, agriculture, and finance. The United States now had an integrated national market practically the size of Europe, with no internal barriers or tariffs, all supported by a common language, and financial system and a common legal system.

Railroads financing provided the basis for a dramatic expansion of the private non-governmental financial system. Construction of railroads was far more expensive than factories. New York by was the dominant financial market. In —, they liquidated their American assets to pay for war supplies. Railroad management designed complex systems that could handle far more complicated simultaneous relationships than could be dreamed of by the local factory owner who could patrol every part of his own factory in a matter of hours.

Civil engineers became the senior management of railroads. The leading American innovators were the Western Railroad of Massachusetts and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the s, the Erie in the s and the Pennsylvania in the s. The railroads invented the career path in the private sector for both blue-collar workers and white-collar workers. Railroading became a lifetime career for young men; women were almost never hired.

A typical career path would see a young man hired at age 18 as a shop laborer, be promoted to skilled mechanic at age 24, brakemen at 25, freight conductor at 27, and passenger conductor at age White-collar careers paths likewise were delineated. Educated young men started in clerical or statistical work and moved up to station agents or bureaucrats at the divisional or central headquarters. At each level they had more and more knowledge, experience, and human capital. They were very hard to replace, and were virtually guaranteed permanent jobs and provided with insurance and medical care. Hiring, firing, and wage rates were set not by foremen, but by central administrators, in order to minimize favoritism and personality conflicts.

Everything was done by the book, whereby an increasingly complex set of rules dictated to everyone exactly what should be done in every circumstance, and exactly what their rank and pay would be. By the s the career railroaders were retiring, and pension systems were invented for them. Railways contribute to social vibrancy and economic competitiveness by transporting multitudes of customers and workers to city centres and inner suburbs. Hong Kong has recognized rail as "the backbone of the public transit system " and as such developed their franchised bus system and road infrastructure in comprehensive alignment with their rail services. In the decade the heavy use of railways in the American Civil War, [87] and in Germany's wars against Austria and France, [88] provided a speed of movement unheard-of in the days of horses.

During much of the 20th century, rail was a key element of war plans for rapid military mobilization , allowing for the quick and efficient transport of large numbers of reservists to their mustering-points, and infantry soldiers to the front lines. Railways channel growth towards dense city agglomerations and along their arteries, [ citation needed ] as opposed to highway expansion, indicative of the U. Bryant Chad found that in s Austria the arrival of railways and steam locomotives angered locals because of the noise, smell, and pollution caused by the trains and the damage to homes and the surrounding land caused by the engine's soot and fiery embers; and since most travel was very local ordinary people seldom used the new line.

A study found that the opening of the Beijing Metro caused a reduction in "most of the air pollutants concentrations PM2. European development economists have argued that the existence of modern rail infrastructure is a significant indicator of a country's economic advancement: this perspective is illustrated notably through the Basic Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index known as BRTI Index. According to the European Railway Performance Index for intensity of use, quality of service and safety performance, the top tier European national rail systems consists of Switzerland, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Austria, Sweden, and France.

Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland capture relatively high value for their money, while Luxembourg, Belgium, Latvia, Slovakia, Portugal, Romania, and Bulgaria underperform relative to the average ratio of performance to cost among European countries. In Russian Railways received In , funding from the U. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Redirected from Railroad. Conveyance of passengers and goods by way of trains on a railway. Method of transportation. For rail transport in different countries, see Rail transport by country. For other uses, see Railway disambiguation and Railroad disambiguation. Map of world railway network interactive map.

Main article: History of rail transport. See also: Funicular , Wagonway , Tramway industrial , and Plateway. See also: Steam locomotive. See also: Electric locomotive and Railway electrification system. Main article: High-speed rail. See also: Heritage railways. Main article: Train. Main article: Rail freight transport. Left: Railway turnouts; Right: Chicago Transit Authority control box guides elevated Chicago 'L' north and southbound Purple and Brown lines intersecting with east and westbound Pink and Green lines and the looping Orange line above the Wells and Lake street intersection in the loop at an elevated right of way.

Main article: Right-of-way transportation. Main article: Track. Main article: Train inspection system. Main article: Railway signalling. Main article: Railway electrification system. Main article: Train station. Main article: Rail subsidies. For subsidies in Europe, see European rail subsidies. Trains portal Transport portal Lists portal. British Rail Derailment Environmental design in rail transportation International Union of Railways List of countries by rail transport network size List of countries by rail usage List of railroad-related periodicals List of railway companies List of railway industry occupations Passenger rail terminology Rail transport by country Mega project Mine railway Outline of rail transport Railway systems engineering Transport Revolution Track gauge.

The Journal of Hellenic Studies. JSTOR In Guy, A. Early Railways. Archived from the original PDF on 21 July December The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. Retrieved 22 April Archived from the original on 28 June The Evolution of Railways. Railway Gazette 2 ed. OCLC Boyes ed. We did learn that zero interest rates lowered inflation concerns and the Olympics are still taking place, although to empty stadiums. Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email.

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