Sixth Amendment Reflection
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The Sixth Amendment - Civil liberties and civil rights - US government and civics - Khan Academy
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UNITA militants:. FNLA militants:. South African troops :. The war began immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November Additionally, the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda FLEC , an association of separatist militant groups, fought for the independence of the province of Cabinda from Angola. The year war can be divided roughly into three periods of major fighting — from to , to and from to — with fragile periods of peace. By the time the MPLA achieved victory in , more than , people had died and over one million had been internally displaced.
The Angolan Civil War was notable due to the combination of Angola's violent internal dynamics and the exceptional degree of foreign military and political involvement. The war is widely considered a Cold War proxy conflict , as the Soviet Union and the United States, with their respective allies, provided assistance to the opposing factions. Land mines still litter the countryside and contribute to the ongoing civilian casualties. Angola's three rebel movements had their roots in the anti-colonial movements of the s. Since its formation in the s, the MPLA's main social base has been among the Ambundu people and the multiracial intelligentsia of cities such as Luanda , Benguela and Huambo.
Cuba became the MPLA's strongest ally, sending significant contingents of combat and support personnel to Angola. This support, as well as that of several other countries of the Eastern Bloc , e. East Germany, was maintained during the Civil War. However, it rapidly developed into a nationalist movement, supported in its struggle against Portugal by the government of Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire.
UNITA's main social basis were the Ovimbundu of central Angola, who constituted about one third of the country's population, but the organization also had roots among several less numerous peoples of eastern Angola. Angola, like most African countries, became constituted as a nation through colonial intervention. In Angola's case, its colonial power — Portugal — was present and active in the territory, in one way or another, for over four centuries. The original population of this territory were dispersed Khoisan groups. These were absorbed or pushed southwards, where residual groups still exist, by a massive influx of Bantu people who came from the north and east.
The Bantu influx began around BC, and some continued their migrations inside the territory well into the 20th century. They established a number of major political units, of which the most important was the Kongo Empire whose centre was located in the northwest of what today is Angola, and which stretched northwards into the west of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo DRC , the south and west of the contemporary Republic of Congo and even the southernmost part of Gabon. Also of historical importance were the Ndongo and Matamba kingdoms to the south of the Kongo Empire, in the Ambundu area. Additionally, the Lunda Empire , in the south-east of the present day DRC, occupied a portion of what today is north-eastern Angola. In the south of the territory, and the north of present-day Namibia , lay the Kwanyama kingdom, along with minor realms on the central highlands.
All these political units were a reflection of ethnic cleavages that slowly developed among the Bantu populations, and were instrumental in consolidating these cleavages and fostering the emergence of new and distinct social identities. At the end of the 15th century, Portuguese settlers made contact with the Kongo Empire , maintaining a continuous presence in its territory and enjoying considerable cultural and religious influence thereafter. In , Portugal established a settlement and fort called Saint Paul of Luanda on the coast south of the Kongo Empire, in an area inhabited by Ambundu people.
Another fort, Benguela , was established on the coast further south, in a region inhabited by ancestors of the Ovimbundu people. Neither of these Portuguese settlement efforts was launched for the purpose of territorial conquest. It is true that both gradually came to occupy and farm a broad area around their initial bridgeheads in the case of Luanda, mostly along the lower Kwanza River. However, their main function was trade — overwhelmingly the slave trade. Slaves were bought from African intermediaries and sold to Portuguese colonies in Brazil and the Caribbean. In addition, Benguela developed commerce in ivory , wax , and honey , which they bought from Ovimbundu caravans which fetched these goods from among the Ganguela peoples in the eastern part of what is now Angola.
Nonetheless, the Portuguese presence on the Angolan coast remained limited for much of the colonial period. The degree of real colonial settlement was minor, and, with few exceptions, the Portuguese did not interfere by means other than commercial in the social and political dynamics of the native peoples. There was no real delimitation of territory; Angola, to all intents and purposes, did not yet exist. In the 19th century, the Portuguese began a more serious program of advancing into the continental interior. However, their intention was less territorial occupation and more establishing a de facto overlordship which allowed them to establish commercial networks as well as a few settlements.
In the course of this expansion, they entered into conflict with several of the African political units. Territorial occupation only became a central concern for Portugal in the last decades of the 19th century, during the European powers' " Scramble for Africa ", especially following the Berlin Conference. A number of military expeditions were organized as preconditions for obtaining territory which roughly corresponded to that of present-day Angola. By the mids, the limits of the territory were finally fixed, and the last "primary resistance" was quelled in the early s. It is thus reasonable to talk of Angola as a defined territorial entity from this point onwards.
The Portuguese Colonial War , which included the Angolan War of Independence , lasted until the Portuguese regime's overthrow in through a leftist military coup in Lisbon. When the timeline for independence became known, most of the roughly , ethnic Portuguese Angolans fled the territory during the weeks before or after that deadline. Portugal left behind a newly independent country whose population was mainly composed by Ambundu, Ovimbundu, and Bakongo peoples.
The Portuguese that lived in Angola accounted for the majority of the skilled workers in public administration, agriculture, and industry; once they fled the country, the national economy began to sink into depression. The South African government initially became involved in an effort to counter the Chinese presence in Angola, which was feared might escalate the conflict into a local theatre of the Cold War. Vorster authorized Operation Savannah , [54] which began as an effort to protect engineers constructing the dam at Calueque , after unruly UNITA soldiers took over.
The dam, paid for by South Africa, was felt to be at risk. Zaire, in a bid to install a pro- Kinshasa government and thwart the MPLA's drive for power, deployed armored cars, paratroopers, and three infantry battalions to Angola in support of the FNLA. In response to the South African intervention, Cuba sent 18, soldiers as part of a large-scale military intervention nicknamed Operation Carlota in support of the MPLA. In early November , the South African government warned Savimbi and Roberto that the South African Defence Force SADF would soon end operations in Angola despite the failure of the coalition to capture Luanda and therefore secure international recognition for their government. On the night of 10 November, the day before the formal declaration of independence, Savimbi secretly flew to Pretoria to meet Vorster.
The Soviet leadership expressly forbade the Cubans from intervening in Angola's civil war, focusing the mission on containing South Africa. In and most foreign forces, with the exception of Cuba, withdrew. The last elements of the Portuguese military withdrew in [70] and the South African military withdrew in February Davis correctly predicted the Soviet Union would respond by increasing involvement in the Angolan conflict, leading to more violence and negative publicity for the United States. When Ford approved the program, Davis resigned. Davis' deputy, former U. Mulcahy presented three options for U. The Senate passed the bill, voting 54—22 on 19 December , and the House of Representatives passed the bill, voting —99 on 27 January Bush , refused to concede that all U.
The U. Eight days later, the French government responded to Mobutu's plea and airlifted 1, Moroccan troops into Kinshasa. The counter-invasion force pushed the last of the militants, along with numerous refugees, into Angola and Zambia in April American timidity during the war prompted a shift in Zaire's foreign policy towards greater engagement with France, which became Zaire's largest supplier of arms after the intervention. He also said that covert Soviet involvement in Angola came after, and in response to, U. While the Carter Administration had accepted Cuba's insistence on its non-involvement in Shaba I, and therefore did not stand with Mobutu, the U. The Zairean army then forcibly evicted civilians along Shaba's border with Angola.
Mobutu, wanting to prevent any chance of another invasion, ordered his troops to shoot on sight. Factionalism within the MPLA became a major challenge to Neto's power by late and Neto gave Alves the task of once again clamping down on dissent. Alves shut down the Cabral and Henda Committees while expanding his influence within the MPLA through his control of the nation's newspapers and state-run television.
Alves visited the Soviet Union in October , and may have obtained Soviet support for a coup against Neto. By the time he returned, Neto had grown suspicious of Alves' growing power and sought to neutralize him and his followers, the Nitistas. Neto formally designated the party as Marxist-Leninist , abolished the Interior Ministry of which Alves was the head , and established a Commission of Enquiry. Neto used the commission to target the Nitistas, and ordered the commission to issue a report of its findings in March Alves and Van-Dunem planned to arrest Neto on 21 May before he arrived at a meeting of the Central Committee and before the commission released its report on the activities of the Nitistas.
However, the MPLA changed the location of the meeting shortly before its scheduled start, throwing the plotters' plans into disarray, but Alves attended the meeting and faced the commission anyway. The commission released its report, accusing him of factionalism. Alves fought back, denouncing Neto for not aligning Angola with the Soviet Union. After twelve hours of debate, the party voted 26 to 6 to dismiss Alves and Van-Dunem from their positions. The 8th brigade then took control of the radio station in Luanda and announced their coup, calling themselves the MPLA Action Committee. The brigade asked citizens to show their support for the coup by demonstrating in front of the presidential palace.
The Nitistas captured Bula and Dangereaux, generals loyal to Neto, but Neto had moved his base of operations from the palace to the Ministry of Defence in fear of such an uprising. Cuban troops loyal to Neto retook the palace and marched to the radio station. The Cubans succeeded in taking the radio station and proceeded to the barracks of the 8th Brigade, recapturing it by pm. While the Cuban force captured the palace and radio station, the Nitistas kidnapped seven leaders within the government and the military, shooting and killing six. Those who were found guilty, including Van-Dunem, Jacobo "Immortal Monster" Caetano, the head of the 8th Brigade, and political commissar Eduardo Evaristo, were shot and buried in secret graves.
At least 2, followers or alleged followers of Nito Alves were estimated to have been killed by Cuban and MPLA troops in the aftermath, with some estimates claiming as high as 90, dead. Amnesty International estimated 30, died in the purge. Alves had opposed Neto's foreign policy of non-alignment , evolutionary socialism , and multiracialism, favoring stronger relations with the Soviet Union, which Alves wanted to grant military bases in Angola.
In , the MPLA had reached , members, but after the first party congress, that number decreased to 30, Zverev , Neto stood his ground and refused to allow the construction of permanent military bases. Under dos Santos's leadership, Angolan troops crossed the border into Namibia for the first time on 31 October, going into Kavango. The next day, dos Santos signed a non-aggression pact with Zambia and Zaire. The South African government responded by sending troops back into Angola, intervening in the war from to , [71] prompting the Soviet Union to deliver massive amounts of military aid from to Beginning with , Romania trained Angolan guerrillas.
Every 3—4 months, Romania sent two airplanes to Angola, each returning with recruits. These were taken back to Angola after they completed their training. In addition to guerrilla training, Romania also instructed young Angolans as pilots. There were around Romanian instructors in this academy, with about Romanian soldiers guarding the base, which supported 50 aircraft used to train Angolan pilots. The facility trained air force pilots, technicians and General Staff officers.
The Romanian teaching staff was gradually replaced by Angolans. The Angolan Ministry of Defense accused the South African government of wounding and killing civilians. The MPLA government arrested Angolans who were planning to set off explosives in Luanda, on 24 June, foiling a plot purportedly orchestrated by the South African government. Cuba increased its troop force in Angola from 35, in to 40, in The governments of Israel and South Africa supported the idea, but both respective countries were deemed inadvisable for hosting the conference. We, free peoples fighting for our national independence and human rights, assembled at Jamba, declare our solidarity with all freedom movements in the world and state our commitment to cooperate to liberate our nations from the Soviet Imperialists.
While the attack failed, very different interpretations of the attack emerged. Savimbi developed close relations with influential American conservatives, who saw Savimbi as a key ally in the U. The conflict quickly escalated, with both Washington and Moscow seeing it as a critical strategic conflict in the Cold War. In Washington, Savimbi forged close relationships with influential conservatives, including Michael Johns The Heritage Foundation 's foreign policy analyst and a key Savimbi advocate , Grover Norquist President of Americans for Tax Reform and a Savimbi economic advisor , and others, who played critical roles in elevating escalated U.
With enhanced U. In addition to escalating its military support for UNITA, the Reagan administration and its conservative allies also worked to expand recognition of Savimbi as a key U. The South African government agreed to Crocker's terms in principle on 8 March. Savimbi proposed a truce regarding the Benguela railway on 26 March, saying MPLA trains could pass through as long as an international inspection group monitored trains to prevent their use for counter-insurgency activity. The government did not respond. South African Defence Forces maintained an overwatch on the city using new, G5 artillery pieces. Both sides claimed victory in the ensuing Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.
After the indecisive results of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, Fidel Castro claimed that the increased cost of continuing to fight for South Africa had placed Cuba in its most aggressive combat position of the war, arguing that he was preparing to leave Angola with his opponents on the defensive. According to Cuba, the political, economic and technical cost to South Africa of maintaining its presence in Angola proved too much. Conversely, the South Africans believe that they indicated their resolve to the superpowers by preparing a nuclear test that ultimately forced the Cubans into a settlement. Belgian criminal toxicologist Dr. Aubin Heyndrickx, studied alleged evidence, including samples of war-gas "identification kits" found after the battle at Cuito Cuanavale, claimed that "there is no doubt anymore that the Cubans were using nerve gases against the troops of Mr.
Jonas Savimbi. The Cuban government joined negotiations on 28 January , and all three parties held a round of negotiations on 9 March. All parties agreed to a ceasefire on 8 August. Representatives from the governments of Angola, Cuba, and South Africa signed the New York Accords, granting independence to Namibia and ending the direct involvement of foreign troops in the civil war, in New York City on 22 December As the Angolan Civil War began to take on a diplomatic component, in addition to a military one, two key Savimbi allies, The Conservative Caucus ' Howard Phillips and the Heritage Foundation's Michael Johns visited Savimbi in Angola, where they sought to persuade Savimbi to come to the United States in the spring of to help the Conservative Caucus, the Heritage Foundation and other conservatives in making the case for continued U.
President Mobutu invited 18 African leaders, Savimbi, and dos Santos to his palace in Gbadolite in June for negotiations. Savimbi and dos Santos met for the first time and agreed to the Gbadolite Declaration , a ceasefire, on 22 June, paving the way for a future peace agreement. On 23 August, dos Santos complained that the U. The ceasefire broke down with dos Santos and the U. Political changes abroad and military victories at home allowed the government to transition from a nominally communist state to a nominally democratic one. American journalist Karl Maier wrote: "In the New Angola ideology is being replaced by the bottom line, as security and selling expertise in weaponry have become a very profitable business.
With its wealth in oil and diamonds, Angola is like a big swollen carcass and the vultures are swirling overhead. Savimbi's former allies are switching sides, lured by the aroma of hard currency. Among those killed in the purge were Tito Chingunji and his family in Government troops wounded Savimbi in battles in January and February , but not enough to restrict his mobility. Bush again, [] the fourth of five trips he made to the United States. Savimbi was highly successful in this endeavour.
A sizable amount of the aid went to Savimbi's personal expenses. Black, Manafort filed foreign lobbying records with the U. Justice Department showing Savimbi's expenses during his U. When questioned in an interview in about human rights abuses under Savimbi, Black said, "Now when you're in a war, trying to manage a war, when the enemy President dos Santos met with Savimbi in Lisbon , Portugal and signed the Bicesse Accords, the first of three major peace agreements, on 31 May , with the mediation of the Portuguese government.
The FAA would consist of a national army with 40, troops, navy with 6,, and air force with 4, Angola held the first round of its presidential election on 29—30 September. Dos Santos officially received Savimbi, along with eight opposition parties and many other election observers, said the election had been neither free nor fair. Civilians, using guns they had received from police a few days earlier, conducted house-by-house raids with the Rapid Intervention Police, killing and detaining hundreds of UNITA supporters. The government took civilians in trucks to the Camama cemetery and Morro da Luz ravine, shot them, and buried them in mass graves. Assailants attacked Chitunda's convoy on 2 November, pulling him out of his car and shooting him and two others in their faces.
Although the U. Edward DeJarnette, Head of the U. The government engaged in an ethnic cleansing of Bakongo , and, to a lesser extent Ovimbundu , in multiple cities, most notably Luanda, on 22 January in the Bloody Friday massacre. The latter won the battle with a scoreline of , , , , , Eighth seed Babar Masih, who recently won a silver in the World 6 Reds Snooker Championship at Doha, was on song as he stretched his unbeaten run. Hammad excels with double century breaks Anwar Zuberi Published October 4, Facebook Count. Twitter Share. Mubashir now has one victory and two defeats with another two league matches to go. Published in Dawn, October 4th, Bill of Rights.
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