The Fourth State Of Matter Summary
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The Fourth State of Matter
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The other main component of the brain is grey matter actually pinkish tan due to blood capillaries , which is composed of neurons. The substantia nigra is a third colored component found in the brain that appears darker due to higher levels of melanin in dopaminergic neurons than its nearby areas. Note that white matter can sometimes appear darker than grey matter on a microscope slide because of the type of stain used. Cerebral - and spinal white matter do not contain dendrites , neural cell bodies , or shorter axons, [ citation needed ] which can only be found in grey matter. White matter forms the bulk of the deep parts of the brain and the superficial parts of the spinal cord.
Aggregates of grey matter such as the basal ganglia caudate nucleus , putamen , globus pallidus , substantia nigra , subthalamic nucleus , nucleus accumbens and brainstem nuclei red nucleus , cranial nerve nuclei are spread within the cerebral white matter. The cerebellum is structured in a similar manner as the cerebrum, with a superficial mantle of cerebellar cortex, deep cerebellar white matter called the " arbor vitae " and aggregates of grey matter surrounded by deep cerebellar white matter dentate nucleus , globose nucleus , emboliform nucleus , and fastigial nucleus. The fluid-filled cerebral ventricles lateral ventricles, third ventricle , cerebral aqueduct , fourth ventricle are also located deep within the cerebral white matter.
Men have more white matter than women both in volume and in length of myelinated axons. At the age of 20, the total length of myelinated fibers in men is , km while that of a woman is , km. White matter is the tissue through which messages pass between different areas of grey matter within the central nervous system. The white matter is white because of the fatty substance myelin that surrounds the nerve fibers axons. This myelin is found in almost all long nerve fibers, and acts as an electrical insulation. This is important because it allows the messages to pass quickly from place to place. Unlike grey matter, which peaks in development in a person's twenties, the white matter continues to develop, and peaks in middle age.
Multiple sclerosis MS is the most common of the inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system which affect white matter. In MS lesions, the myelin sheath around the axons is deteriorated by inflammation. Amyloid plaques in white matter may be associated with Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases.
White matter lesions on magnetic resonance imaging are linked to several adverse outcomes, such as cognitive impairment and depression. Smaller volumes in terms of group averages of white matter might be associated with larger deficits in attention , declarative memory , executive functions , intelligence , and academic achievement. The study of white matter has been advanced with the neuroimaging technique called diffusion tensor imaging where magnetic resonance imaging MRI brain scanners are used. As of , more than publications have been published on the subject. A paper by Jan Scholz and colleagues [20] used diffusion tensor imaging DTI to demonstrate changes in white matter volume as a result of learning a new motor task e.
The study is important as the first paper to correlate motor learning with white matter changes. Previously, many researchers had considered this type of learning to be exclusively mediated by dendrites, which are not present in white matter. The authors suggest that electrical activity in axons may regulate myelination in axons. Or, gross changes in the diameter or packing density of the axon might cause the change. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Areas of myelinated axons in the brain. Micrograph showing white matter with its characteristic fine meshwork-like appearance left of image - lighter shade of pink and grey matter , with the characteristic neuronal cell bodies right of image - dark shade of pink.
HPS stain. Human brain right dissected lateral view, showing grey matter the darker outer parts , and white matter the inner and prominently whiter parts. Neuroanatomy through clinical cases 2nd ed. Sunderland, Mass. ISBN Areas of the CNS made up mainly of myelinated axons are called white matter. Scientific American. Bibcode : SciAm. Biological Psychology. Worth Publishers: New York. Taylor and Francis. PMID The Journal of Comparative Neurology. S2CID Nature Neuroscience.
Handbook of Clinical Neurology. ISSN PMC Scott; Yeo, Ronald A. Addiction Biology. Alzheimer's and Dementia. Practical Neurology. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. Elsevier BV. Ovid Technologies Wolters Kluwer Health. Psychiatry in Welsh. West Sussex, England: Wiley Blackwell. OCLC Douglas Trends in Neurosciences. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience.
Archived from the original on Retrieved Journal of Neuroscience. Nervous tissue. Epineurium Perineurium Endoneurium. Axon hillock. Meissner's corpuscle Merkel nerve ending Pacinian corpuscle Ruffini ending Muscle spindle Free nerve ending Nociceptor Olfactory receptor neuron Photoreceptor cell Hair cell Taste receptor. The spinal cord. Intermediolateral nucleus Posterior thoracic nucleus. Interneuron Alpha motor neuron Onuf's nucleus Gamma motor neuron.
Rexed laminae Central gelatinous substance Gray commissure. Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway : Gracile Cuneate. Spinocerebellar dorsal ventral Spinothalamic lateral anterior Posterolateral Spinotectal. Spinoreticular tract Spino-olivary tract. Anterior white commissure. Ventral Anterior median fissure Anterolateral sulcus Dorsal Posterior median sulcus Posterolateral sulcus. Anatomy of the medulla. Hypoglossal nucleus Nucleus ambiguus Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve Inferior salivatory nucleus. Provided that not less than two-thirds of the members of such Committee shall be elected by, and from amongst, the elected members of the Municipalities and Chairpersons of the Panchayats in the Metropolitan area in proportion to the ratio between the population of the Municipalities and of the Panchayats in that area;.
Continuance of existing laws and Municipalities. Provided that all the Municipalities existing immediately before such commencement shall continue till the expiration of their duration, unless sooner dissolved by a resolution passed to that effect by the Legislative Assembly of that State or, in the case of a State having a Legislative Council, by each House of the Legislature of that State. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters. Amendment of article Addition of Twelfth Schedule.
Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society, including the handicapped and mentally retarded. Having regard to these inadequacies, it is considered necessary that provisions relating to Urban Local Bodies are incorporated in the Constitution particularly for- i putting on a firmer footing the relationship between the State Government and the Urban Local Bodies with respect to- a the functions and taxation powers; and b arrangements for revenue sharing; ii Ensuring regular conduct of elections; iii ensuring timely elections in the case of supersession; and iv providing adequate representation for the weaker sections like Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women.
Accordingly, it is proposed to add a new part relating to the Urban Local Bodies in the Constitution to provide for- a constitution of three types of Municipalities: i Nagar Panchayats for areas in transition from a rural area to urban area; ii Municipal Councils for smaller urban areas; iii Municipal Corporations for larger urban areas. Extension of provisions of the Bill to such areas may be done by Parliament by law; n disqualifications for membership of a Municipality; o bar of jurisdiction of Courts in matters relating to elections to the Municipalities. The Bill seeks to achieve the aforesaid objectives. The 11th September, Constitution of Municipalities. Urban planning including town planning.
Regulation of land-use and construction of buildings. Planning for economic and social development. Roads and bridges. Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes. Public health, sanitation conservancy and solid waste management. Fire services. Urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects. Slum improvement and upgradation. Urban poverty alleviation. Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens, playgrounds. Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects. Burials and burial grounds; cremations, cremation grounds and electric crematoriums.
Cattle pounds; prevention of cruelty to animals. Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths. Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops and public conveniences. Regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries.
