Similarities Between Indian Horse And Indian Horse

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Saul Indian Horse goes through a multitude traumatic experiences at a young age; experiences consisting of losing his family, experiencing sexual abuse, and violent racism. Through story telling and historical teachings, the elders are able to create a sense of culture and unity among the aboriginal youth and this characteristic is shown in Indian Horse through Naomi and her teachings to Saul. They were left to fend for themselves against the harsh climate and rough terrain. Indian horse by Richard Wagamese allowed me to open my eyes on the issues of Aboriginal people dealing with all the horrible pains and abusive trauma from the residential school.

Before reading this book, I felt like I was educated well enough to understand how much aboriginal people suffered through generations and how much they have lost compared to what they had before. Wagamese novel Indian horse, Saul Indian Horse, one of the many victims of the sixties scoop was taken as a young boy, where he was abused mentally, physically and emotionally at St. Jerome's residential school. This school would inflict pain that would last forever and has a terrible aftermath on his life that puts him in a long and difficult healing process he endured to turn his life around from the distractions he used to hide from the pain.

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The horse was an important animal in the Vedic period. Horse bones and terracotta figurines have been found at some Harappan sites as well. Some of the religious practices of the Harappan people like worship of Pipal trees, bull, Siva-lingas are still followed by the modern Hindus. Some terracotta figurines of women found at Nausharo still have vermillion in their hair-parting. Vermillion in the Hair Parting is the most precious and sacred symbol of married Hindu women even today. A terracotta tablet from Harappa depicts the scene of Mahisa sacrifice , reminding us of Mahisasuramardini.

The Harappan people were aware of using ornaments like earrings, necklaces, bracelets, anklets, garlands, and jewels. Rig Veda mentions the use of gold and ayas copper. Ayas was used in making of vessels. The above-discussed similarities found between the Rig Vedic and Harappan civilization have led to the conclusion that the Harappan civilization is the same as the Vedic civilization and the Aryans did not come to India from outside. Previous Page. Next Page. The evolution of the horse , a mammal of the family Equidae , occurred over a geologic time scale of 50 million years, transforming the small, dog-sized, [1] forest-dwelling Eohippus into the modern horse.

Paleozoologists have been able to piece together a more complete outline of the evolutionary lineage of the modern horse than of any other animal. Much of this evolution took place in North America, where horses originated but became extinct about 10, years ago. The horse belongs to the order Perissodactyla odd-toed ungulates , the members of which all share hooved feet and an odd number of toes on each foot, as well as mobile upper lips and a similar tooth structure. This means that horses share a common ancestry with tapirs and rhinoceroses.

The perissodactyls arose in the late Paleocene , less than 10 million years after the Cretaceous—Paleogene extinction event. This group of animals appears to have been originally specialized for life in tropical forests , but whereas tapirs and, to some extent, rhinoceroses, retained their jungle specializations, modern horses are adapted to life on drier land, in the much harsher climatic conditions of the steppes. Other species of Equus are adapted to a variety of intermediate conditions. The early ancestors of the modern horse walked on several spread-out toes, an accommodation to life spent walking on the soft, moist grounds of primeval forests. As grass species began to appear and flourish, [ citation needed ] the equids ' diets shifted from foliage to grasses, leading to larger and more durable teeth.

At the same time, as the steppes began to appear, the horse's predecessors needed to be capable of greater speeds to outrun predators. This was attained through the lengthening of limbs and the lifting of some toes from the ground in such a way that the weight of the body was gradually placed on one of the longest toes, the third. Wild horses were known since prehistory from central Asia to Europe, with domestic horses and other equids being distributed more widely in the Old World, but no horses or equids of any type were found in the New World when European explorers reached the Americas.

When the Spanish colonists brought domestic horses from Europe, beginning in , escaped horses quickly established large feral herds. In the s, the early naturalist Buffon suggested this was an indication of inferiority of the New World fauna, but later reconsidered this idea. The first Old World equid fossil was found in the gypsum quarries in Montmartre , Paris , in the s. The tooth was sent to the Paris Conservatory , where it was identified by Georges Cuvier , who identified it as a browsing equine related to the tapir.

During the Beagle survey expedition , the young naturalist Charles Darwin had remarkable success with fossil hunting in Patagonia. On 10 October , at Santa Fe, Argentina , he was "filled with astonishment" when he found a horse's tooth in the same stratum as fossil giant armadillos , and wondered if it might have been washed down from a later layer, but concluded this was "not very probable". In , a study On the fossil horses of America by Joseph Leidy systematically examined Pleistocene horse fossils from various collections, including that of the Academy of Natural Sciences , and concluded at least two ancient horse species had existed in North America: Equus curvidens and another, which he named Equus americanus.

A decade later, however, he found the latter name had already been taken and renamed it Equus complicatus. The original sequence of species believed to have evolved into the horse was based on fossils discovered in North America in by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh. The sequence, from Eohippus to the modern horse Equus , was popularized by Thomas Huxley and became one of the most widely known examples of a clear evolutionary progression.

The horse's evolutionary lineage became a common feature of biology textbooks, and the sequence of transitional fossils was assembled by the American Museum of Natural History into an exhibit that emphasized the gradual, "straight-line" evolution of the horse. Since then, as the number of equid fossils has increased, the actual evolutionary progression from Eohippus to Equus has been discovered to be much more complex and multibranched than was initially supposed.

The straight, direct progression from the former to the latter has been replaced by a more elaborate model with numerous branches in different directions, of which the modern horse is only one of many. George Gaylord Simpson in [10] first recognized that the modern horse was not the "goal" of the entire lineage of equids, [11] but is simply the only genus of the many horse lineages to survive. Detailed fossil information on the distribution and rate of change of new equid species has also revealed that the progression between species was not as smooth and consistent as was once believed. Although some transitions, such as that of Dinohippus to Equus , were indeed gradual progressions, a number of others, such as that of Epihippus to Mesohippus , were relatively abrupt in geologic time , taking place over only a few million years.

Both anagenesis gradual change in an entire population's gene frequency and cladogenesis a population "splitting" into two distinct evolutionary branches occurred, and many species coexisted with "ancestor" species at various times. The change in equids' traits was also not always a "straight line" from Eohippus to Equus : some traits reversed themselves at various points in the evolution of new equid species, such as size and the presence of facial fossae , and only in retrospect can certain evolutionary trends be recognized.

Phenacodontidae is the most recent family in the order Condylarthra believed to be the ancestral to the odd-toed ungulates. The family lived from the Early Paleocene to the Middle Eocene in Europe and were about the size of a sheep , with tails making slightly less than half of the length of their bodies and unlike their ancestors, good running skills for eluding predators. Eohippus appeared in the Ypresian early Eocene , about 52 mya million years ago. It was an animal approximately the size of a fox — mm in height , with a relatively short head and neck and a springy, arched back.

It had 44 low-crowned teeth, in the typical arrangement of an omnivorous, browsing mammal: three incisors, one canine, four premolars , and three molars on each side of the jaw. Its molars were uneven, dull, and bumpy, and used primarily for grinding foliage. The cusps of the molars were slightly connected in low crests. Eohippus browsed on soft foliage and fruit, probably scampering between thickets in the mode of a modern muntjac. It had a small brain, and possessed especially small frontal lobes. Its limbs were long relative to its body, already showing the beginnings of adaptations for running. However, all of the major leg bones were unfused, leaving the legs flexible and rotatable.

Its wrist and hock joints were low to the ground. The forelimbs had developed five toes, of which four were equipped with small proto-hooves; the large fifth "toe-thumb" was off the ground. The hind limbs had small hooves on three out of the five toes, while the vestigial first and fifth toes did not touch the ground. Its feet were padded, much like a dog's, but with the small hooves in place of claws. For a span of about 20 million years, Eohippus thrived with few significant evolutionary changes. During the Eocene, an Eohippus species most likely Eohippus angustidens branched out into various new types of Equidae. Thousands of complete, fossilized skeletons of these animals have been found in the Eocene layers of North American strata, mainly in the Wind River basin in Wyoming.

Similar fossils have also been discovered in Europe, such as Propalaeotherium which is not considered ancestral to the modern horse. Approximately 50 million years ago, in the early-to-middle Eocene , Eohippus smoothly transitioned into Orohippus through a gradual series of changes. It resembled Eohippus in size, but had a slimmer body, an elongated head, slimmer forelimbs, and longer hind legs, all of which are characteristics of a good jumper. Although Orohippus was still pad-footed, the vestigial outer toes of Eohippus were not present in Orohippus ; there were four toes on each fore leg, and three on each hind leg.

The most dramatic change between Eohippus and Orohippus was in the teeth: the first of the premolar teeth was dwarfed, the last premolar shifted in shape and function into a molar, and the crests on the teeth became more pronounced. Both of these factors gave the teeth of Orohippus greater grinding ability, suggesting Orohippus ate tougher plant material. In the mid-Eocene, about 47 million years ago, Epihippus , a genus which continued the evolutionary trend of increasingly efficient grinding teeth, evolved from Orohippus.

Epihippus had five grinding, low-crowned cheek teeth with well-formed crests. A late species of Epihippus , sometimes referred to as Duchesnehippus intermedius , had teeth similar to Oligocene equids, although slightly less developed. Whether Duchesnehippus was a subgenus of Epihippus or a distinct genus is disputed. In the late Eocene and the early stages of the Oligocene epoch 32—24 mya , the climate of North America became drier, and the earliest grasses began to evolve. The forests were yielding to flatlands, [ citation needed ] home to grasses and various kinds of brush.

In a few areas, these plains were covered in sand , [ citation needed ] creating the type of environment resembling the present-day prairies. In response to the changing environment, the then-living species of Equidae also began to change. In the late Eocene, they began developing tougher teeth and becoming slightly larger and leggier, allowing for faster running speeds in open areas, and thus for evading predators in nonwooded areas [ citation needed ].

About 40 mya, Mesohippus "middle horse" suddenly developed in response to strong new selective pressures to adapt, beginning with the species Mesohippus celer and soon followed by Mesohippus westoni. In the early Oligocene, Mesohippus was one of the more widespread mammals in North America. It walked on three toes on each of its front and hind feet the first and fifth toes remained, but were small and not used in walking. The third toe was stronger than the outer ones, and thus more weighted; the fourth front toe was diminished to a vestigial nub.

Judging by its longer and slimmer limbs, Mesohippus was an agile animal. Mesohippus was slightly larger than Epihippus , about mm 24 in at the shoulder. Its back was less arched, and its face, snout, and neck were somewhat longer. It had significantly larger cerebral hemispheres , and had a small, shallow depression on its skull called a fossa , which in modern horses is quite detailed. The fossa serves as a useful marker for identifying an equine fossil's species.

Mesohippus had six grinding "cheek teeth", with a single premolar in front—a trait all descendant Equidae would retain. Mesohippus also had the sharp tooth crests of Epihippus , improving its ability to grind down tough vegetation. Around 36 million years ago, soon after the development of Mesohippus , Miohippus "lesser horse" emerged, the earliest species being Miohippus assiniboiensis. As with Mesohippus , the appearance of Miohippus was relatively abrupt, though a few transitional fossils linking the two genera have been found.

Mesohippus was once believed to have anagenetically evolved into Miohippus by a gradual series of progressions, but new evidence has shown its evolution was cladogenetic : a Miohippus population split off from the main genus Mesohippus , coexisted with Mesohippus for around four million years, and then over time came to replace Mesohippus. Miohippus was significantly larger than its predecessors, and its ankle joints had subtly changed.

Its facial fossa was larger and deeper, and it also began to show a variable extra crest in its upper cheek teeth, a trait that became a characteristic feature of equine teeth. Miohippus ushered in a major new period of diversification in Equidae. The forest-suited form was Kalobatippus or Miohippus intermedius , depending on whether it was a new genus or species , whose second and fourth front toes were long, well-suited to travel on the soft forest floors. Kalobatippus probably gave rise to Anchitherium , which travelled to Asia via the Bering Strait land bridge , and from there to Europe. The Miohippus population that remained on the steppes is believed to be ancestral to Parahippus , a North American animal about the size of a small pony , with a prolonged skull and a facial structure resembling the horses of today.

Its third toe was stronger and larger, and carried the main weight of the body. Its four premolars resembled the molar teeth; the first were small and almost nonexistent. In the middle of the Miocene epoch, the grazer Merychippus flourished.