17th Century France
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Late 16th and 17th Century France
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Influenced by seventeenth-century Dutch masters, the Barbizon painters turn away from idealized classical landscapes in favor of direct observation of nature and sketching out-of-doors, en plein air a practice facilitated by the introduction, in , of collapsible metal squeeze tubes of paint. Best known for animal groups such as this, Barye appeals to a contemporary taste for unflinching images of nature at its most ferocious. Its fragmented figures contort into gestures of anguish, their mouths opened to cry out. Louis-Philippe fosters its completion by architects L. The work elevates the volunteer soldiers to the status of mythic heroes as they advance—nude, or wearing classical armor—under the sweeping winged allegorical figure of Liberty.
Major excavations in northern Iraq, then part of the Ottoman Turkish empire, are undertaken by French and British diplomats and adventurers. Many of the monumental stone sculptures and reliefs discovered within ancient Assyrian royal palaces dating from the ninth to seventh century B. Many architects and artists are influenced by the discoveries and an Assyrian Revival style flourishes in the second half of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. In late June of this year, class riots break out in the working districts of Paris and are brutally suppressed by the army. He is named emperor of the Second Empire in the following year. Known to posterity for his elegant portraits of such luminaries as the actress Sarah Bernhardt and writer Charles Baudelaire, Nadar is better known to his contemporaries as a novelist and essayist.
American Commodore Matthew Perry and the Tokugawa shogunate conclude the Kanagawa treaty that opens Japan, hitherto an isolationist country, to trade with the West limited trade, particularly with Dutch merchants, had been permitted up to this point. Japanese pictorial arts, especially prints, and other aspects of the Japanese aesthetic exert a profound influence on contemporary French artists, authors, and composers. In , the critic and collector Philippe Burty uses the term japonisme to refer to this widespread cultural phenomenon and to promote its study. The Exposition Universelle, including a major art exhibition, is held in Paris with the aim of displaying the social, industrial, and cultural progress in France under Napoleon III. Outraged by the stylistic strictures imposed by the Academy of Fine Arts, Courbet organizes a private exhibition in a tent near the fairground entrance, calling it his Pavilion of Realism.
These works, depicting the landscape and inhabitants of his rural birthplace, elevate scenes from everyday life to the grand scale formerly reserved for history painting. The House of Worth dominates Parisian fashion through the second half of the nineteenth century. The increasing popularity of photography encourages the development of faster printing processes and the circulation of inexpensive types of photographic prints, including the stereograph and the carte-de-visite. The artist is already well known for the satirical drawings and political cartoons he produces for Paris weeklies, such as Rue Transnonain, April 15, In a composition that recalls old master paintings, notably the Venus of Urbino by Titian , a nude female figure reclines on a couch.
The Franco-Prussian War breaks out, ending in French defeat. In the following year, a socialist Commune is set up in Paris March 18—May 29 ; Gustave Courbet is an active participant in Commune politics, and leads a commission for the protection of artistic monuments. They develop a style of painting with loose, broken brushstrokes that mirrors the often fleeting nature of their subjects. American painter Mary Cassatt — settles in Paris. By the mids, her style becomes less Academic, and she exhibits with the Impressionists in , , and Cassatt later displays her refined draftsmanship and graphic technique in paintings and prints—particularly of maternal scenes—markedly inspired by the Japanese aesthetic.
In her later years, she acts as advisor to several American friends in purchasing old master and nineteenth-century French avant-garde art; among them is Louisine Havemeyer — , who bequeaths nearly 2, paintings and art objects from her collection to the Metropolitan Museum in He will soon achieve his own success as a portraitist, depicting with liveliness and elegance the American and European elite of his age, as in his portrait of Madame Pierre Gautreau, known as Madame X —84; Sargent is also a gifted plein-air landscapist. The wax sculpture, wearing a real tulle skirt and horsehair wig tied with a silk ribbon, causes a scandal because of its naturalistic depiction of the young model. Degas is a gifted draftsman, capturing through sophisticated compositional technique the self-conscious poise of ballerinas and the casual postures of solitary bathers.
The artist employs a technique known variously as Divisionism or Pointillism, in which small patches or dots of pure colors are juxtaposed to produce a visual harmony when viewed from a distance. This systematic method, rooted in contemporary color theories, places Seurat at the forefront of the Neo-Impressionist movement, along with Paul Signac — and Lucien Pissarro — , son of Camille Pissarro. Works by these artists appear in the last Impressionist exhibition of Admired by and closely associated with the work of the Symbolists are painters Gustave Moreau — —who engages the opposing tensions of physicality, spirituality, desire, and morality in canvases such as Oedipus and the Sphinx Under the bright sulphur-yellow light of Provence, his work comes into its own as he realizes the expressive potential of color and line.
On October 23, he is joined by Paul Gauguin; they spend 9 weeks painting side by side and living together in the Yellow House. The Nabis are associated with the Symbolist movement. The Eiffel Tower, a foot-high iron structure designed by Gustave Eiffel — and erected between and , stands near the fairground entrance on the Champ de Mars as a symbol of the triumph of science, engineering, and industry.
Claude Monet , chief exponent of Impressionism, purchases a house in Giverny, whose landscape profoundly inspires him. About this time, he begins the first of several series of paintings depicting a single subject in various conditions of light and weather. His subjects include haystacks He exhibits these during the s in several one-man shows at the Durand-Ruel Gallery in Paris. Paul Gauguin makes his first trip to Tahiti, where he stays until He used examples from the New Testament of rulers who were only answerable to God. Popes had insisted since the medieval times that they could only be judged by God. In England, there was a lot of turmoil between the reigning monarchs and large landowners.
English monarchs tried to copy France with their financial system that did not. By doing this, it helped to grant French monarchs absolute rule. While easily achieved in France, the English monarchy failed royally. James I of England also tried to achieve the divine right of kings. Without the help of parliament, James I had to find other means of revenue. James I and the Duke of Buckingham also sold royal patronage to the highest bidders.
These were some of the key factors that led to the distrust of the English monarchs. He would entertain nobles at Versailles, his personal twenty-six acre home. He would then grant them tax exemptions, wealth, and social standing if they supported him. The French nobility found the best way to protect and promote their interests was to support the reigning monarch. Instead of depending on the wealth of the nobles, he made the nobles dependent on him. English monarchs also botched in establishing absolute monarchy because of religion. Protestant became the leading religion among the English.
Protestants believed that Sunday should be full of religious observances and very little leisure or recreation. James I believed that recreation and sports were innocent activities and permitted them to be played on Sunday, which infuriated the Protestant religions. Because of a few other miss happenings, a Protestant movement known as Puritanism was established. This was a nonpolitical force that opposed absolutism and sought to limit political authority and eventually overturn it. There were also Puritans in France that tried to rebel but their efforts were crushed by Louis XIV and the Roman Catholics who enforced religious uniformity.
England also differed from France because of the creation of the Bill of Rights. Though they were the new reigning monarchs, Parliament issued the Bill of Rights that limited powers of the monarchy and guaranteed the civil liberties of the English classes. William and Mary signed the Bill of Rights that would let them rule only by the consent of Parliament. From the beginning of their reign in , they brought many economic and military resources into balance with the French and would eventually top France as the powerhouse of Europe. In Comparing French and English political development, the beliefs of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke perfectly illustrate the differences between absolute and parliamentary governments. Hobbes was a strict supporter to absolutism and complete control.
Locke was a supporter of constitutionalism and protecting the natural rights of humans. Both of these philosophers, being completely opposite in view from the other, is the classic battle that has gone on forever and still exists today; the fight for power and the fight for freedom. Thomas Hobbes was a very talented and depressing political philosopher. He had discouragingly low view on values and the natural state of humans. Hobbes believed that the human race was so wicked and power stricken that they were cast out of paradise into the earth.
To Hobbes, as expressed in the Leviathan, human nature was based on physical sensations and lust for power. The individuals should be told every choice to make and constrained by one supreme ruler that holds all power. Locke viewed human beings in their natural state as being creatures of goodwill and reason. He believed that humans were divine creatures put on earth by God to learn from it and make it useful. Locke wrote the Essay Concerning Human Understanding that described the mind as being a blank slate at birth. As a person grows the development of who they become is based on their surroundings and those around them.
Hobbes idea that humans are all evil is rebuked by Locke saying that people are not born evil. Their surroundings, experiences, and influences are what develop evil tendencies. Locke also wrote the Two Treatises of Government.
