Passive Procrastination Hypothesis

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What is Procrastination? Episode 2 #PracticalPsychology

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Similarly, negligible effect sizes between adolescent screen use and well-being are found in cross-sectional data sets representative of the population in the UK and US. The aforementioned studies often relied on composite measures of screen use, possibly explaining the overall small effects. In contrast, work distinguishing between different types of use shows that active use likely has different effects than passive use.

Specifically, active use may contribute to making meaningful social connections, whereas passive use does not. In a large sample of Icelandic adolescents, passive social media use was positively related to anxiety and depressive symptoms; the opposite was the case for active use. Furthermore, longitudinal work so far relies on self-reports of media use. Self-reported media use has been shown to be inaccurate compared with objectively measured use. The limited existing evidence suggests that effects remain small.

In a convenience sample of adults, only phone use at night negatively predicted well-being. Effects might also not be linear. Whereas both low and high levels of internet use have been shown to be associated with slightly decreased life satisfaction, moderate use has been shown to be related to slightly increased life satisfaction. Taken together, do the positive or the negative effects prevail? The literature implies that the relationship between technology use and adolescent well-being is more complicated than an overall negative linear effect.

In line with meta-analyses on adults, effects of digital technology use in general are mostly neutral to small. Although there are several conflicting positions and research findings, some general implications emerge:. The general effects of digital technology use on well-being are likely in the negative spectrum, but very small—potentially too small to matter. No screen time is created equal; different uses will lead to different effects. Digital technology use is more likely to affect short-term positive or negative affect than long-term life satisfaction.

The dose makes the poison; it appears that both low and excessive use are related to decreased well-being, whereas moderate use is related to increased well-being. Adolescents are likely more vulnerable to effects of digital technology use on well-being, but it is important not to patronize adolescents—effects are comparable and adolescents not powerless. The current empirical research has several limitations: high-quality studies with large-scale samples, objective measures of digital technology use, and experience sampling of well-being are still missing. Despite almost 30 years of research on digital technology, there is still no coherent empirical evidence as to whether digital technology hampers or fosters well-being.

Most likely, general effects are small at best and probably in the negative spectrum. As soon as we take other factors into account, this conclusion does not hold up. Active use that aims to establish meaningful social connections can have positive effects. Passive use likely has negative effects. Both might follow a nonlinear trend. However, research showing causal effects of general digital technology use on well-being is scarce. In light of these limitations, several scholars argue that technology use has a mediating role already existing problems increase maladapted technology use, which then decreases life satisfaction.

Extreme digital technology use is more likely to be a symptom of an underlying sociopsychological problem than vice versa. This lack of evidence is not surprising, because there is no consensus on central definitions, measures, and methods. Furthermore, it is theoretically unclear as to why adolescents in particular should be susceptible to the effects of technology and what forms of well-being are candidates for effects. At the same time, little research adopts longitudinal designs, differentiates different types of technology use, or measures technology use objectively.

Much work in the field has also been criticized for a lack of transparency and rigor. In other cultures, adolescents use markedly different services such as WeChat or Renren, etc. Although we assume most effects to be comparable, problems seem to differ somewhat. For example, online gaming addiction is more prevalent in Asian than Western cultures. Adults have always criticized the younger generation, and media novels, rock music, comic books, or computer games have often been one of the culprits. Individuals, instead, actively use technology, often with much competence. That is not to say there are no individual cases and scenarios in which effects might be negative and large. Both authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Both authors contributed equally to this manuscript. Tobias Dienlin receives funding from the Volkswagen Foundation. We would like to thank Amy Orben for valuable feedback and comments. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Dialogues Clin Neurosci v. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. All rights reserved. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract This review provides an overview of the literature regarding digital technology use and adolescent well-being. Keywords: adolescent , digital technology , media effect , mental health , smartphone , social media , social networking site , review , well-being.

Acknowledgments Both authors declare no conflicts of interest. Orben A. The Sisyphean cycle of technology panics. Perspect Psychol Sci. Carr N. London, UK: Atlantic Books; Livingstone S. EU Kids Online: Findings, methods, recommendations. Smartphones as metamedia: a framework for identifying the niches structuring smartphone use. Int J Commun. Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well-being? Soc Issues Policy Rev. Comput Hum Behav. Reinecke L, Meier A, Beutel ME, et al The relationship between trait procrastination, Internet use, and psychological functioning: results from a community sample of German adolescents. Front Psychol. Social network sites and well-being: the role of social connection. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. How much is too much?

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J Res Personal. Przybylski AK, Weinstein N. A large-scale test of the goldilocks hypothesis: quantifying the relations between digital-screen use and the mental well-being of adolescents. Subordinating conjunctions are used in complex sentences. They are part of the clause which follows and make the clause dependent. Clauses which begin with subordinating conjunctions are sometimes called adverbial clauses. If the dependent clause appears first, use a comma to separate the two clauses. No comma is required if the independent clause appears first. CORRECT: Even though procrastination can be quite a natural response to facing some onerous tasks, it can cause anxiety for students faced with assessment tasks.

CORRECT: Procrastination can cause anxiety for students faced with assessment tasks even though it can be quite a natural response to facing some onerous tasks. CORRECT: As students who procrastinate often show a lack of prioritising skills , training in time management strategies is often helpful. CORRECT: Training in time management strategies is often helpful as students who procrastinate often show a lack of prioritising skills. Relative pronouns are used in complex sentences. They are part of the clause which follows a noun or noun group and make the clause dependent. Clauses which begin with relative pronouns are sometimes called relative clauses or adjectival clauses. Use a relative clause to give more information about a noun or pronoun.

Because a relative clause appears immediately after the noun or pronoun it modifies, it is frequently embedded in the independent clause. Study the following examples carefully. The relative clause is in italics. You will notice that a comma appears before and after some adjectival clauses. This student, who attends all the classes , suffers from procrastination when faced with assignments. Excessive procrastination, which is task avoidance , can cause poor performance.

A relative clause , essential to defining the noun it modifies, is called a defining clause , and commas are not used.