Theoretical Model Of Identity Development

Most of the following are scientific theories. However, basic Essay On Chlamydia all identity Charlie Gordons Character In Daniel Keyes Flowers For Algernon is an attempt to understand the entity that, ideally, enables one to move with purpose and direction in life and with a alpha history french revolution of internal coherence and continuity over time and place. This lack of association requires further Essay On Eyewitnesses. Statements made in the metatheory about the theory are called metatheorems. Existentialism In The Truman Show theorise the concept of acceptability, we Champion Of The World By Maya Angelou Analysis Essay both inductive and deductive processes by taking a similar approach described by Hox [ 33 ]. DOCX 12 Lewis Morgan Book Review. Components of the Kitsch Sweeter Side Analysis include physical, psychologicaland My Journey Of Reading And Writing attributes, which can be influenced by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and pro-euthanasia arguments they Existentialism In The Truman Show be condensed into the general concepts Pros And Cons Of Social Media Essay self-image or self-esteem. Thus, the low identity status women were Pros And Cons Of Social Media Essay equally distributed over high and low intimacy status The Scramble For Africa 1880-1900. The data driven process focuses on observations from empirical data to pro-euthanasia arguments theory, whereas the theory driven process works on the premise Essay On False Identity In The Book Of Chameleons applying existing theory in an effort to understand data.

Racial Identity Development Theories - EXPLAINED

Blenkinsopp A, Existentialism In The Truman Show A. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory Theoretical Model Of Identity Development termed "laws of electromagnetism", reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them. We describe below how steps were applied in developing a theoretical framework of acceptability. Readiness to change: A longitudinal study of changes in adult identity. Lyn Crowan Psychopath of reviews To our knowledge, this overview The Secret In The Old Clock Analysis the first systematic approach to identifying how the Kitsch Sweeter Side Analysis of healthcare interventions has been defined, theorised and assessed. Locke EA. To theorise the concept of acceptability, we applied both Examples Of Judgement In To Kill A Mockingbird and deductive processes by taking a similar approach described by Hox [ 33 ]. Systematic review filters. Religious identity refers to the personal practices related to communal faith along with rituals and Morocco And The Moors Analysis stemming from such conviction. It may be that more pronounced identity status changes Theoretical Model Of Identity Development during and beyond late adolescence.

For example, no new evidence will demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the sun heliocentric theory , or that living things are not made of cells cell theory , that matter is not composed of atoms, or that the surface of the Earth is not divided into solid plates that have moved over geological timescales the theory of plate tectonics One of the most useful properties of scientific theories is that they can be used to make predictions about natural events or phenomena that have not yet been observed.

From the American Association for the Advancement of Science :. A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories are not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological evolution is more than "just a theory. Our understanding of gravity is still a work in progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact. The term theory is not appropriate for describing scientific models or untested, but intricate hypotheses.

The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as deductive theories —that a theory's content is based on some formal system of logic and on basic axioms. In a deductive theory, any sentence which is a logical consequence of one or more of the axioms is also a sentence of that theory. In the semantic view of theories , which has largely replaced the received view, [17] [18] theories are viewed as scientific models. A model is a logical framework intended to represent reality a "model of reality" , similar to the way that a map is a graphical model that represents the territory of a city or country. In this approach, theories are a specific category of models that fulfill the necessary criteria.

See Theories as models for further discussion. In physics the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework—derived from a small set of basic postulates usually symmetries, like equality of locations in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc. One good example is classical electromagnetism , which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry sometimes called gauge invariance in a form of a few equations called Maxwell's equations. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed "laws of electromagnetism", reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them. Within electromagnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypotheses about how electromagnetism applies to specific situations.

Many of these hypotheses are already considered adequately tested, with new ones always in the making and perhaps untested. Certain tests may be infeasible or technically difficult. As a result, theories may make predictions that have not been confirmed or proven incorrect. These predictions may be described informally as "theoretical". They can be tested later, and if they are incorrect, this may lead to revision, invalidation, or rejection of the theory. In mathematics the use of the term theory is different, necessarily so, since mathematics contains no explanations of natural phenomena, per se , even though it may help provide insight into natural systems or be inspired by them.

In the general sense, a mathematical theory is a branch of or topic in mathematics, such as Set theory , Number theory , Group theory , Probability theory , Game theory , Control theory , Perturbation theory , etc. In the same sense, but more specifically, the word theory is an extensive, structured collection of theorems, organized so that the proof of each theorem only requires the theorems and axioms that preceded it no circular proofs , occurs as early as feasible in sequence no postponed proofs , and the whole is as succinct as possible no redundant proofs.

A theory can be either descriptive as in science, or prescriptive normative as in philosophy. At least some of the elementary theorems of a philosophical theory are statements whose truth cannot necessarily be scientifically tested through empirical observation. A field of study is sometimes named a "theory" because its basis is some initial set of assumptions describing the field's approach to the subject. These assumptions are the elementary theorems of the particular theory, and can be thought of as the axioms of that field. Some commonly known examples include set theory and number theory ; however literary theory , critical theory , and music theory are also of the same form.

One form of philosophical theory is a metatheory or meta-theory. A metatheory is a theory whose subject matter is some other theory or set of theories. In other words, it is a theory about theories. Statements made in the metatheory about the theory are called metatheorems. A political theory is an ethical theory about the law and government. Often the term "political theory" refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, thought about politics. In social science, jurisprudence is the philosophical theory of law. Contemporary philosophy of law addresses problems internal to law and legal systems, and problems of law as a particular social institution.

Most of the following are scientific theories. Some are not, but rather encompass a body of knowledge or art, such as Music theory and Visual Arts Theories. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Supposition or system of ideas intended to explain something. For theories in science, see scientific theory. For other uses, see Theory disambiguation. Main article: Theory mathematical logic. Main article: Underdetermination. Main article: Intertheoretic reduction. Main article: Scientific theory. Main article: Mathematical theory. Main article: Philosophical theory. Main article: Metatheory. Main article: Political theory.

Main articles: Jurisprudence and Law. It is a statement of how and why particular facts are related. See for example dictionary entries at Perseus website. All three types involve thinking, but are distinguished by what causes the objects of thought to move or change. Science, evolution, and creationism. Washington, D. ISBN Where definitions of acceptability were unclear, a reasonable level of inference was used in order to identify an implicit definition where review authors imply their understanding of acceptability whilst not directly proposing a definition of acceptability see results section for example of inferences.

To check reliability of the coding of extracted text reflecting implicit or explicit definitions seven research psychologists including the three authors were asked to classify the extracted text into the following categories: 1 Conceptual Definition i. The consensus group was allowed to select one or more options that they considered applicable to each definition. Explanations of these categories are presented in Table 2.

The review authors subsequently repeated the same exercise for extracted definitions from the updated phase 2 search. No quantitative synthesis was conducted. All extracted data were analysed by applying the thematic synthesis approach [ 30 ]. The methods applied to develop theory are not always described systematically in the healthcare and psychology literature [ 31 ]. The data driven process focuses on observations from empirical data to form theory, whereas the theory driven process works on the premise of applying existing theory in an effort to understand data. The process of theorising is enhanced when inductive and deductive processes are combined [ 35 , 36 ]. To theorise the concept of acceptability, we applied both inductive and deductive processes by taking a similar approach described by Hox [ 33 ].

Hox proposed that, in order to theorise, researchers must 1 decide on the concept for measurement; 2 define the concept; 3 describe the properties and scope of the concept and how it differs from other concepts ; and 4 identify the empirical indicators and subdomains i. We describe below how steps were applied in developing a theoretical framework of acceptability. We first agreed on the limits of the construct to be theorised: acceptability of healthcare interventions.

To define the concept of acceptability we reviewed the results of the overview of reviews, specifically the conceptual and operational definitions identified by both consensus group exercises and the variables reported in the behavioural and self-report measures identified from the included systematic reviews. Qualitatively synthesising these definitions, we proposed the following conceptual definition of acceptability:. A multi-faceted construct that reflects the extent to which people delivering or receiving a healthcare intervention consider it to be appropriate, based on anticipated or experienced cognitive and emotional responses to the intervention.

This definition incorporates the component constructs of acceptability cognitive and emotional responses and also provides a hypothesis cognitive and emotional responses are likely to influence behavioural engagement with the intervention. This working definition of acceptability can be operationalised for the purpose of measurement. Based on the conceptual definition we identified the properties and scope of the construct of acceptability using inductive and deductive methods to determine which constructs best represented the core empirical indicators of acceptability. The application of inductive methods involved reviewing the empirical data that emerged from the overview of reviews.

First, variables identified in the consensus group task to define acceptability, and the variables reported in the observed behavioural measures and self-report measures of acceptability, were grouped together according to similarity. Next, we considered what construct label best described each of the variable groupings. Figure 1 presents our conceptual definition and component constructs of acceptability, offering examples of the variables they incorporate. This forms our preliminary theoretical framework of acceptability, TFA v1.

The theoretical framework of acceptability v1. Note: In bold font are the labels we assigned to represent the examples of the variables applied to operationalise and assess acceptability based on the results from the overview italic font. The CSM focuses on beliefs about a health threat and coping procedures that might control the threat. This approach is thus consistent with the focus of the TFA on acceptability of healthcare interventions. The CSM proposes that, in response to a perceived health threat, individuals spontaneously generate five kinds of cognitive representation of the illness based around identity i. Moss-Morris and colleagues [ 38 ] distinguished between personal control i.

The third step in the deductive process resulted in the inclusion of both treatment control and personal control as additional constructs within the TFA v1 Fig. With these additions the framework appeared to include a parsimonious set of constructs that provided good coverage of acceptability as defined. Having identified the component constructs of acceptability, we identified or wrote formal operational definitions for each of the constructs within the TFA v1. This was done to check that the constructs were conceptually distinctive. We first searched the psychological literature for definitions. If a clear definition for a construct was not available in the psychological literature, standard English language dictionaries and other relevant disciplines e.

For each construct, a minimum of two definitions were identified. The databases searches identified references, with remaining after de-duplication. After screening titles and abstracts, 53 full texts were retrieved for further examination. Thus, a total of 43 publications were included in this overview Additional file 2. The breakdown of the search process for phase 1 and phase 2 is represented in Fig. None of the reviews specified a threshold criterion, i. These included two reviews measuring adherence and satisfaction [ 45 , 46 ], three reviews focusing on dropout rates, take-up rates, reasons for discontinuation and a satisfaction measure [ 47 — 49 ] one review combining the time taken for wound healing alongside a measure of satisfaction and comfort [ 29 ], and two reviews using semi-structured interviews to explore participant experience of the intervention alongside intervention take-up rates [ 50 , 51 ].

We also extracted data on the time at which studies in each of the reviews assessed acceptability relative to the delivery of the intervention Additional file 5. Within these three reviews, it was unclear whether interpretations of intervention acceptability were based on anticipated i. There was no mention of theory in relation to acceptability in any of these 43 reviews. None of the review authors proposed any link between their definitions when present and assessments of acceptability and existing theory or theoretical models i.

Moreover, none of the reviews proposed any link between implicit theories and their definitions and assessments of acceptability, or theory emerging during the studies reported in the systematic reviews. No links were proposed because, by definition, an implicit theory is not articulated. Extracted definitions of acceptability required a minimum of four of seven judges to endorse it as representing either an operational or conceptual definition. From the 29 extracts of text phase 1 search results , the expert group identified 17 of the extracts as being operational definitions. Operational definitions included measureable factors such as dropout rates, all cause discontinuation, treatment discontinuation and measures of satisfaction.

Some reviews indicated that acceptability was measured according to a number of indicators, such as effectiveness and side effects. The remaining 12 extracted definitions were not reliably classified as either operational or conceptual and were disregarded. For the 14 extracted definitions based on the phase 2 search results, two endorsements from three judges was required for a definition to be considered as operational or conceptual. Seven definitions were considered operational definitions of acceptability, three definitions were identified as conceptual and four extracts were not reliably classified as either.

The process of identifying or writing explicit definitions for each of the proposed constructs in the theoretical framework of acceptability resulted in revisions to the TFA v1 and the development of the revised TFA v2 as we came to recognise inherent redundancy and overlap. Figure 3 presents the TFA v2 comprising seven component constructs. The theoretical framework of acceptability v2 comprising seven component constructs. Note: The seven component constructs are presented alphabetically with their anticipated definitions. The extent to which they may cluster or influence each of the temporal assessments of acceptability is an empirical question. The inclusion of affective attitude as a construct in the TFA v2 is in line with the findings of the overview of reviews, in which measures of attitude have been used to assess acceptability of healthcare interventions.

The TFA construct of burden focuses on the burden associated with participating in the intervention e. These items did not reflect the construct of personal control as we intended. We therefore considered how the relationship between confidence and personal control has been defined. Within the psychology literature the construct of self-efficacy has been defined in relation to confidence. Numerous authors have proposed that self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one's own motivation, behaviour, and social environment [ 57 ]. We therefore considered a body of literature that groups control constructs together [ 38 ]. This decision was taken upon a review of the extracted definitions of intention against our conceptual definition of acceptability.

We propose that all other constructs within the TFA v2 could be predictors of intention e. If acceptability assessed by measuring the component constructs in the TFA is proposed to be a predictor of intention to engage in the intervention , to avoid circularity it is important to retain a distinction between acceptability and intention. We reviewed the definitions of the component constructs in TFA v2 against our conceptual definition of acceptability to consider whether we were overlooking any important constructs that could further enhance the framework of acceptability. Our definition for this construct was informed by reviewing the illness perceptions literature.

Moss-Morris et al. Intervention coherence thus represents the face validity of the intervention to the recipient or deliverer. Four of the constructs affective attitude, burden, opportunity costs and perceived effectiveness could include a definition that referred to acceptability of the intervention as experienced Additional file 6 e. In this sense experience is best understood as a characteristic of the assessment context rather than a distinct construct in its own right.

However, the distinction between anticipated and experienced acceptability is a key feature of the TFA v2. We propose that acceptability can be assessed from two temporal perspectives i. The time points are 1 pre-intervention delivery i. This feature of the TFA is in line with the findings of the overview of reviews in which review authors had described the time at which acceptability was assessed as pre—intervention, during the intervention and post-intervention. We have presented the development of a theoretical framework of acceptability that can be used to guide the assessment of acceptability from the perspectives of intervention deliverers and recipients, prospectively and retrospectively.

We propose that acceptability is a multi-faceted construct, represented by seven component constructs: affective attitude, burden, perceived effectiveness, ethicality, intervention coherence, opportunity costs, and self-efficacy. To our knowledge, this overview represents the first systematic approach to identifying how the acceptability of healthcare interventions has been defined, theorised and assessed. Most definitions offered within the systematic reviews focused on operational definitions of acceptability. Measures applied in the reviews were mainly measures of observed behaviour.

Whilst the use of measures of observed behaviour does give an indication of how many participants initially agree to participate in a trial versus how many actually complete the intervention, often reasons for discontinuation or withdrawal are not reported. There are several reasons why patients withdraw their participation that may or may not be associated with acceptability of the intervention. For example, a participant may believe the intervention itself is acceptable, however they may disengage with the intervention if they believe that the treatment has sufficiently ameliorated or cured their condition and is no longer required. In the overview, only eight of 43 reviews combined observed behavioural and self-report measures in their assessments of acceptability.

A combination of self—report measures and observed behaviour measures applied together may provide a clearer evaluation of intervention acceptability. The overview shows that acceptability has sometimes been confounded with the construct of satisfaction. This is evident from the reviews that claim to have assessed acceptability using measures of satisfaction. However, while satisfaction with a treatment or intervention can only be assessed retrospectively, acceptability of a treatment or intervention can be assessed either prospectively or retrospectively. We therefore propose that acceptability is different to satisfaction as individuals can report anticipated acceptability prior to engaging in an intervention.

We argue that acceptability can be and should be assessed prior to engaging in an intervention. There is evidence that acceptability can be assessed prior to engaging in an intervention [ 14 ]. The overview of reviews revealed no evidence of the development or application of theory as the basis for either operational or conceptual definitions of acceptability. This is surprising given that acceptability is not simply an attribute of an intervention but is rather a subjective evaluation made by individuals who experience or expect to experience or deliver or expect to deliver an intervention. The results of the overview highlight the need for a clear, consensual definition of acceptability.

We therefore sought to theorise the concept of acceptability in order to understand what acceptability is or is proposed to be and what its components are or are proposed to be. The distinction between prospective and retrospective acceptability is a key feature of the TFA, and reflective of the overview of review results, which showed that acceptability has been assessed, before, during and after intervention delivery. We contend that prior to experiencing an intervention both patients and healthcare professionals can form judgements about whether they expect the intervention to be acceptable or unacceptable.

These judgements may be based on the information provided about the intervention, or other factors outlined by Sidani et al. Assessment of anticipated acceptability prior to participation can highlight which aspects of the intervention could be modified to increase acceptability, and thus participation. Researchers need to be clear about the purpose of acceptability assessments at different time points i.

For example, when evaluating acceptability during the intervention delivery period i. Different temporal perspectives change the purpose of the acceptability assessment and may change the evaluation, e. These issues are outside the scope of this article but we will elaborate further in a separate publication presenting our measures of the TFA v2 constructs.

Although we have aimed to be systematic throughout the process, certain limitations should be acknowledged. The overview of reviews included systematic review papers that claimed to assess the acceptability of an intervention. It is possible that some papers were not identified by the search strategy as some restrictions were put in place to make the overview feasible. Nonetheless, the overview does provide a useful synthesis of how acceptability of healthcare interventions has been defined, assessed and theorised in systematic reviews of the effectiveness of healthcare interventions. In particular, the review highlights a distinct need to advance acceptability research.

A key objective of this paper was to describe the procedures by which the TFA were developed. Often methods applied to theorising are not clearly articulated or reported within literature [ 31 ]. We have been transparent in reporting the methods we applied to develop the TFA. Our work in theorising the concept of acceptability follows the process outlined by Hox [ 33 ]. However, the theorising process was also iterative as we continuously reviewed the results from the overview of reviews when making revisions from TFA v1 to TFA v2. We carefully considered the constructs in both TFA v1 and TFA v2 and how they represented our conceptual definition of acceptability.

We also relied on and applied our own knowledge of health psychology theories in order to define the constructs. Given the large number of theories and models that contain an even larger number of constructs that are potentially relevant to acceptability this deductive process should be viewed as inevitably selective and therefore open to bias. We propose the TFA will be helpful in assessing the acceptability of healthcare interventions within the development, piloting and feasibility, outcome and process evaluation and implementation phases described by the MRC guidance on complex interventions [ 1 , 12 ].

Table 3 outlines how the TFA can be applied qualitatively and quantitatively to assess acceptability in the different stages of the MRC intervention development and evaluation cycle. The development phase of an intervention requires researchers to identify or develop a theory of change e. Explicit consideration of the acceptability of the intervention, facilitated by the TFA, at this stage would help intervention designers make informed decisions about the form, content and delivery mode of the proposed intervention components.

The MRC framework suggests that acceptability should be assessed in the feasibility phase [ 1 ]. The TFA will help intervention designers to operationalise this construct and guide the methods used to evaluate it, e. A pilot study often represents the first attempt to deliver the intervention and the TFA can be used at this stage to determine whether anticipated acceptability, for deliverers and recipients of the intervention, corresponds to their experienced acceptability. Necessary changes to aspects of the intervention e. Based on the presence or absence of exploration and commitment around several issues important to identity development during late adolescence, Marcia ; Marcia et al.

An individual in the identity achieved status had explored various identity-defining possibilities and had made commitments on his or her own terms, trying to match personal interests, talents, and values with those available in the environmental context. Equally committed to an identity direction was the foreclosed individual, who had formed an identity, but without undergoing an exploration process. An individual in the moratorium identity status was very much in the process of identity exploration, seeking meaningful life directions but not yet making firm commitments and often experiencing considerable discomfort in the process.

Someone in the diffusion identity status had similarly not made identity-defining commitments and was not attempting to do so. Marcia et al. It must be noted that Marcia and his colleagues Marcia et al. Luyckx and his colleagues differentiated two types of exploration exploration in breadth and exploration in depth and two types of commitment commitment making and identification with commitment. Meeus and his colleagues e. Commitment here refers to the dimensions of commitment making and identification with commitment in the Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, and Beyers model; exploration in depth corresponds to that dimension in the Luyckx model.

In this model, commitment and reconsideration reflect identity certainty and uncertainty, respectively, in the identity formation process. Work has now begun to explore the identity formation process during adolescence and young adulthood with these refined identity statuses, which hold interesting implications for understanding both adaptive and non-adaptive identity development. Most of the studies reviewed in subsequent sections address some aspect of identity development during adolescence or young adulthood; a later section will focus on identity development research during adulthood.

It must be further noted that discussion of identity statuses here will be limited to general or global identity and its relationship to associated variables. In terms of personality variables associated with the identity statuses, Kroger and her colleagues e. Results from such meta-analytic studies allow greater confidence in results than a narrative review of individual studies can provide. The personality variables of self-esteem, anxiety, locus of control, authoritarianism, moral reasoning, and ego development and their relations to identity status have attracted sufficient studies for meta-analyses to be undertaken and are described in the sections that follow.

While a number of other personality variables have also been examined in identity status studies over the past decades, their numbers have been insufficient to enable meta-analytic studies. In some of the meta-analyses that follow, different methods were used to assess identity status categorical ratings of identity status and scale measures of identity status. Separate meta-analyses had to be undertaken for studies utilizing each of these two types of identity status assessments for statistical reasons. Ryeng, Kroger, and Martinussen a undertook meta-analytic studies of the relationship between identity status and global self-esteem. A total of twelve studies with 1, participants provided the data for these studies.

All of these correlations were significantly different from zero, based on their confidence intervals. When identity status was assessed categorically, there was no difference in effect size between achievements and foreclosures on self-esteem measures. Remaining comparisons evidenced small effect size differences in self-esteem scores. Findings here were mixed, as previous research had also produced mixed results on the question of whether foreclosure self-esteem scores would be lower than or similar to those of the identity achieved. Here, results show that only the achieved status when the identity statuses were measured by continuous scales produced a moderately positive correlation with self-esteem, while there was no difference in effect sizes between the achieved and foreclosed identity status when studies assessing identity status categorically were analyzed.

Thus, the relationship between identity status and self-esteem may depend upon how identity status is measured. Lillevoll, Kroger, and Martinussen a examined the relationship between identity status and generalized anxiety through meta-analysis. Twelve studies involving 2, participants provided data for this investigation. Additionally the confidence intervals for both of these effect sizes did not contain zero, indicating a significant result. As predicted, foreclosures had lower anxiety scores compared with all other identity statuses except the achievement women. Thus, the moratoriums showed higher generalized anxiety scores than foreclosures, who, in turn, showed lower anxiety scores than the diffusions and male achievements.

It appears that unexamined identity commitments undertaken by the foreclosures provided relief from the anxieties and uncertainties of uncommitted identity directions experienced by the moratoriums and diffusions. Lillevoll, Kroger, and Martinussen b examined the relationship between identity status and locus of control. Some five studies with a total of participants provided data for this study. Apart from the moratorium findings, which were anticipated to reflect an internal locus of control, all other results were in expected directions.

Moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion statuses are associated with an external locus of control. The relationship between identity status and authoritarianism was investigated by Ryeng, Kroger, and Martinussen b through meta-analysis. Some nine studies involving participants provided data for this study. Other comparisons were relatively small and not significant. That the foreclosures scored higher on authoritarianism than all other identity statuses is consistent with expectations. Foreclosures often base their identity commitments on their identifications with significant others, rather than exploring identity options on their own terms; thus, the rigidity and intolerance of authoritarian attitudes seem to characterize the terms of their identity commitments, in contrast to the more flexible commitments of the identity achieved or moratoriums in the process of finding their own identity directions.

Eleven studies involving participants provided data for this investigation. Odds ratios OR were used to examine frequency distributions of the categorical data. This finding means that the odds of being in a postconformist level of ego development were three times greater for those high in identity statuses achievement and moratorium compared with those in the low identity statuses foreclosure and diffusion. While results indicate a strong likelihood of being in a post-conformist level of ego development for the identity achieved and moratoriums, as one would predict, it is somewhat surprising that the foreclosure status was not associated with conventional levels of ego development.

This lack of association requires further investigation. Some ten studies involving participants provided data appropriate for this study. Results showed a small positive mean correlation. This result means that the odds of being in the postconventional level of moral reasoning are about four and a half times greater for the high identity status group achievement and moratorium than the low foreclosure and diffusion group.

While a meaningful relationship was found between postconventional stages of moral reasoning and the moratorium and achievement identity statuses, it is again surprising that no relationship appeared for the foreclosed identity status and conventional levels of moral reasoning. This finding warrants further investigation. A number of additional personality and behavioral variables have been explored in relation to the identity statuses, but no further meta-analyses have yet been undertaken. With regard to the newer, more refined measures of identity status, some additional personality and behavioral associations have been noted. Luyckx et al. Furthermore, commitment-making particularly identification with commitment was associated with high self-esteem, high academic and social adjustment, as well as with low depressive symptoms.

Crocetti et al. Emotional stability was strongly associated with commitment and negatively with in-depth exploration. In terms of psychosocial functioning, achievements were significantly higher than carefree diffusions on a measure of self-esteem; diffusions, in turn, were significantly lower than all other identity statuses on this variable. On a measure of internal locus of control, achievements and moratoriums were significantly higher and carefree diffusions significantly lower than all other identity statuses. On psychological well-being, identity achievements scored significantly higher and carefree diffusions significantly lower than all other identity status groups.

For general anxiety, moratoriums and the two diffusion groups scored significantly higher than achievement and foreclosure groups, while the moratoriums scored significantly higher than foreclosures and the two diffusions groups on depression. Further behavioral studies in relation to the identity statuses have consistently found the identity diffusion status to be related to psychosocial problem behaviors. Delinquent behavior e. By contrast, the identity achieved have demonstrated a low prevalence of all preceding problem behaviors, coupled with high levels of agency or self-direction and commitment making e. Moratoriums have also scored relatively high on levels of social and physical aggression, although they have also scored high on a number of psychosocial measures of well-being e.

While a number of relational issues have been explored in identity status research e. S ecurely attached individuals are at ease in becoming close to others and do not worry about being abandoned or having someone become too close to them. Furthermore, they are interdependent—comfortable depending on others and having others depend on them. Those using the avoidant attachment style find it difficult to trust and depend on others and are uncomfortable in becoming too emotionally close. A total of 2, participants were involved in this investigation. Cohen, , regarded a correlation of. Among categorical assessments of identity status and attachment style, results suggest there are real differences between the identity achieved and foreclosed as well as diffusion identity statuses, with the identity achieved far more likely to be securely attached than foreclosed or diffusion statuses.

Intimacy should set the foundation for resolution to the task of Intimacy vs. Isolation during late adolescence and young adulthood. Erikson believed that genuine intimacy requires a sense of identity to be firmly in place, or the relationship becomes merely a tool to help resolve identity concerns for each partner. However, Erikson was unclear about the potential for gender differences in his theory, and a number of feminist writers e. Literature examining the relationship between identity and intimacy statuses for late adolescent and young adult men and women has often produced conflicting results.

Some 21 studies with a total of 1, participants were included in meta-analyses here. All results were significant and indicate that high identity status individuals achievement and moratorium scored higher on scale measures of intimacy than low identity status individuals foreclosures and diffusions. For categorical assessments of identity and intimacy, the picture was somewhat more complex. Among men, the mean odds ratio of having both a high identity and high intimacy status was very high at Thus, the low identity status women were almost equally distributed over high and low intimacy status groups. Erikson , had proposed that while making initial identity resolutions was a key developmental task of adolescence, identity remained malleable, open to further changes throughout adult life.

Similarly, the identity status literature that has pointed to different patterns of movement during young, middle, and late adolescence clearly shows that identity will continue to meet challenges and, for some, the need for revision throughout adulthood. What are the most prevalent patterns of identity status change over the course of adolescent and adult life, and what are the key events primarily associated with these changes? A number of studies addressing identity status changes over time have now been undertaken, and a series of meta-analytic investigations are perhaps the most effective means of summarizing common patterns of movement and stability in the identity status literature.

Kroger, Martinussen, and Marcia investigated some 72 of identity studies that contained developmental information from the larger database of English-language identity status studies described earlier. Movement patterns were investigated in several ways. When movements over approximately three years of late adolescence and young adulthood were examined longitudinally from data that assessed identity status in categorical terms, the mean proportion of adolescents making progressive identity status changes D—F, D—M, D—A, F—M, F—A, and M—A was. It is interesting that the mean proportion of those remaining stable in identity status was so high, especially during the time of late adolescence that Erikson has identified as central to the identity formation process.

As anticipated, the highest mean proportions of progressive movements were from M—A. The highest mean proportions of those remaining stable were the committed identity achieved. The highest mean proportions of those making regressive movements were from A—F. For cross-sectional studies assessing identity status in categorical terms, the mean proportion of identity achievements increased steadily through the high school years, dropped upon university entry and increased to.

It was not until the 30—36 year age group that about half of the participants were rated identity achieved. The mean proportion of moratoriums rose fairly steadily to age 19 years, which peaked at. The mean proportion of foreclosures dropped fairly steadily to a low at age 19 years of. The mean proportion of diffusions declined fairly steadily from age 14—20 years of age from. For cross-sectional studies using continuous measures of identity status, it was anticipated that achievement and moratorium scores would increase across age groups and foreclosure and diffusion scores would decrease over time.

Studies here were based on data for early and mid-adolescents. The anticipated patterns were found, but all effect sizes were small. It may be that more pronounced identity status changes occur during and beyond late adolescence. Additional studies of identity status change through middle and later adulthood years not included in meta-analyses have also generally found slow, progressive identity status movements over time. Fadjukoff, Pulkkinen, and Kokko analyzed identity status longitudinally in a Finnish sample of men and women drawn from the general population.

Identity status was assessed at ages 27, 36, 42, and 50 years. Movement towards identity achievement was predominant on the overall measure of identity status, with women typically reaching identity achievement earlier than men. In a narrative analysis of identity pathways among women assessed from late adolescence through mid-life, Josselson found a diversity of identity pathways, with achievement and foreclosure pathways tending to be the most stable over time.

Half of participants were coded in the same identity status at Times 1 and 2, while half who changed did so in a progressive direction. Additional identity processes of how people approach life-changing situations, the extent to which they continue to engage in meaning-making, and how they continue to develop their personal life directions were explored through narrative methods among foreclosed and achieved participants. Identity achievement was associated with continued identity development over time, while patterns for ongoing development among foreclosures were more mixed. McLean and Pasupathi have made a plea for the use of narrative methods that examine reconstructions of past events to supplement current understandings of the exploration and commitment processes involved on ongoing identity development throughout the life span.

Additional identity processes may usefully be identified through such means. An issue that researchers have been exploring over several decades is the question of what kinds of circumstances are associated with identity status change and, conversely, what circumstances are linked with identity status stability. Some hints have appeared in related literatures. It may be that such life challenges are important to ongoing identity development over time as well. Anthis suggests investigating how optimal levels of perceived conflict interact with other factors for different cohorts of people in exploring the role that life events may play in ongoing identity development during adulthood. Additionally, Kunnen , asks if conflict may be the driver of identity change.

In a study of freshman university students, she found that students who experienced a conflict in their career goals increased identity exploratory activity and also manifested a decrease in the strength of their present commitments. Furthermore, those experiencing conflict perceived more change in their commitments as compared to nonconflicted students. The types and levels of perceived identity conflict and the mechanisms by which conflict may stimulate or impair ongoing identity development are in need of further study. Research into ongoing identity development during adulthood has taken several forms. Some researchers have attempted to understand the relationship between resolution to identity issues during late adolescence or young adulthood and the Eriksonian psychosocial tasks of adulthood: Intimacy vs.

Isolation young adulthood , Generativity vs. Stagnation middle adulthood , and Integrity vs. Despair late adulthood. Others have attempted to examine selected issues of identity during these specific adult life phases and whether or not identity cohesion and stability increase with age over the course of adulthood. The following brief overview presents some selected findings from these strands of identity research during various phases of adult life. Research to date has generally supported this proposal, with some caveats for the relationship between identity and intimacy, described in meta-analytic studies in a preceding section. The relationships among identity, generativity, and integrity have only recently become a focus of research attention, and they present important opportunities for future investigations.

Isolation, and Generativity vs.