Maternal Inheritance Essay
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Spring 2015 Lecture 5 - Maternal Effects
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For more information, check our Revision Policy. Calculate the price of your paper Type of paper needed. You will get a personal manager and a discount. Academic level. Continue to order. Our features. Motherhood and fatherhood are not limited to those who are or have parented. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, though such applications tend to be less readily applied to biological fathers or adoptive parents. The adjective "maternal" refers to a mother and comparatively to "paternal" for a father. The verb "to mother" means to procreate or to sire a child from which also derives the noun "mothering".
Related terms of endearment are mom mama , mommy , mum mummy , mumsy , mamacita ma , mam and mammy. A female role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a mother-figure. Biological motherhood for humans , as in other mammals , occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum the "egg". A female can become pregnant through sexual intercourse after she has begun to ovulate. In well-nourished girls, menarche the first menstrual period usually takes place around the age of 12 or Typically, a fetus develops from the viable zygote , resulting in an embryo.
Gestation occurs in the woman's uterus until the fetus assuming it is carried to term is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely , late, or in the case of stillbirth , do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system , and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of age.
Childlessness is the state of not having children. Childlessness may have personal, social or political significance. Childlessness may be voluntary childlessness , which occurs by choice, or may be involuntary due to health problems or social circumstances. Motherhood is usually voluntary, but may also be the result of forced pregnancy , such as pregnancy from rape. Unwanted motherhood occurs especially in cultures which practice forced marriage and child marriage. Mother can often apply to a woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother the biologically unrelated partner of a child's father.
The term " othermother " or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the child's primary mother. Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history, even predating human civilization. In recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common. Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view compared to other Western countries.
A surrogate mother is a woman who bears a child that came from another woman's fertilized ovum on behalf of a couple unable to give birth to children. Thus the surrogate mother carries and gives birth to a child that she is not the biological mother of. Surrogate motherhood became possible with advances in reproductive technologies , such as in vitro fertilization. Not all women who become pregnant via in vitro fertilization are surrogate mothers. Surrogacy involves both a genetic mother, who provides the ovum, and a gestational or surrogate mother, who carries the child to term. The possibility for lesbian and bisexual women in same-sex relationships or women without a partner to become mothers has increased over the past few decades [ when? Modern lesbian parenting a term that somewhat erases the bisexual case originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships.
Another way for such women to become mothers is through adopting or foster parenting. There is also the option of self- insemination and clinically assisted donor insemination, forms of artificial insemination. As fertility technology has advanced, more females not in a heterosexual relationship have become mothers through in vitro fertilization. The social roles associated with motherhood are variable across time, culture, and social class.
In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers. Regarding women in the workforce , mothers are said to often follow a " mommy track " rather than being entirely " career women ". Mothers may be stay at home mothers or working mothers. In recent decades there has been an increase in stay at home fathers too. Social views on these arrangements vary significantly by culture: in Europe for instance, in German-speaking countries there is a strong tradition of mothers exiting the workforce and being homemakers.
Mothers' rights within the workforce include maternity leave and parental leave. The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children. Since the s, in vitro fertilization has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood. Traditionally, and still in most parts of the world today, a mother was expected to be a married woman, with birth outside of marriage carrying a strong social stigma. Historically, this stigma not only applied to the mother, but also to her child.
This continues to be the case in many parts of the developing world today, but in many Western countries the situation has changed radically, with single motherhood being much more socially acceptable now. For more details on these subjects, see Legitimacy family law and single parent. The total fertility rate TFR , that is, the number of children born per woman, differs greatly from country to country. The TFR in was estimated to be highest in Niger 7. A maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes". In , the organization Save the Children has ranked the countries of the world, and found that Scandinavian countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in sub-Saharan Africa are the least safe to give birth.
The most recent data suggests that Italy , Sweden and Luxembourg are the safest countries in terms of maternal death and Afghanistan , Central African Republic and Malawi are the most dangerous. Childbirth is an inherently dangerous and risky process, subject to many complications. The "natural" mortality rate of childbirth—where nothing is done to avert maternal death—has been estimated as being deaths per , births.
In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per , births. Nearly all world religions define tasks or roles for mothers through either religious law or through the glorification of mothers who served in substantial religious events. There are many examples of religious law relating to mothers and women. Major world religions which have specific religious law or scriptural canon regarding mothers include: Christianity , [34] Judaism , [35] and Islam. History records many conflicts between mothers and their children. In modern cultures, matricide the killing of one's mother and filicide the killing of one's son or daughter have been studied but remain poorly understood.
Psychosis and schizophrenia are common causes of both, [37] [38] and young, indigent mothers with a history of domestic abuse are slightly more likely to commit filicide. In the United States in , there were matricides 0. Throughout history mothers with their children have often been the subject of artistic works, such as paintings, sculptures or writings.
Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of Rhodes depicted mothers with children. Paintings of mothers with their children have a long tradition in France. In the 18th century, these works embodied the Enlightenment's preoccupation with strong family bonds and the relation between mothers and children. At the end of the nineteenth century, Mary Cassatt was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers. The proverbial "first word" of an infant often sounds like "ma" or "mama".
This strong association of that sound with "mother" has persisted in nearly every language on earth, countering the natural localization of language. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Female parent. Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Mother disambiguation , Mothers disambiguation , Mom disambiguation , Mum disambiguation , Mothering disambiguation , Motherhood disambiguation and Maternity disambiguation. First Second Third Fourth. Women's suffrage Muslim countries US. General variants. Religious variants. By country. Lists and categories. Lists Articles Feminists by nationality Literature American feminist literature Feminist comic books.
Play media. Main article: Surrogacy. Main article: Maternal mortality. Main articles: Matricide and Filicide. Main article: Mama and papa. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press.
